krishnology

krishnology


Yashoda bathing Bala Krishna. (Western Indian illustrated Bhagavata Purana Manuscript)
Bala Krishna (IAST bālakṛṣṇa, literally "child Krishna") sometimes translated to "Divine Child Krishna",[1] is historically one of the early forms of worship in Krishnaism and an element of the history of Krishna worship in antiquity. This tradition is considered as a part of the number of other traditions that led to amalgamation in a later stage of the historical development and culminate in worship of Radha Krishna as Svayam bhagavan. Other monotheist traditions are Bhagavatism and Cult of Gopala, that along with Cult of Krishna-Vasudeva form the basis of the current tradition of the monotheistic Krishna religion.[1] It must be noted that the worship of Balakrishna, the divine child, while a significant feature of the Krishna religion, often receives less attention,[2] however it is one of the most popular deities of Krishna in many parts of India today.[1] Early evidence of such worship can be found or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva (as the son of Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme Being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[3]
Some of the miraculous acts of the form are notable. Its is believed that Putana, a huge monster, was killed when the baby Krishna sucked her life from her by taking the poisoned breast she offered him.[4]
Bala-Krishna is often depicted as a small child crawling on his hands and knees or dancing with a piece of butter in his hand.[5][6]
In the Bhagavad Gita, it appears Krishna is teaching a universal monotheistic religion of personal God and reveals himself to be all-God, svayam bhagavan. The historical fusion of Krishna with Vishnu involved a transfer of many of Vishnu's epithets, as well as his functions, to Krishna. The childhood episodes of Krishna's legend became the focus of the medieval devotional cults that started to develop in a number of movements in medieval India. [4]

Contents
· 1 Monuments
· 2 Hinduism in the west
· 3 See also
· 4 Footnotes
· 5 References
[edit] Monuments


View of the temple of Bala Krishna at Hampi


A 14th-15th century CE relief of Balakrishna in Hampi, Vijayanagara in Karnataka South India
The prominent historical site is the Balakrishna temple in Hampi built by the ruler Krishnadevaraya in 1513. Main altar of the temple is dedicated to Bala Krishna and it is one of the few temples where stories of Puranas were carved on the walls of the temple and its main tower.[7] Other notable image is murti of Bala Krishna worshiped by Madhvacharya in his Sri Krishna Matha of Udupi. Its believed the form was transported by sea from Dwarka.[8] Legend has it that this was the very same murti which wife of Krishna, Rukmini, had worshipped. Liberation from the world of matter requered grace and dependence on God and active devotion, such as worshipping the Lord in the form of an icon (murti). Madhva placed such an icon of Bala Krishna in his monastery in Udipi where it remains to be seen by pilgrims to this day.[9] Ever since the image was installed, Udupi has been steadily gaining in importance as a centre of pilgrimage. It is believed Madhvacharya saved drifting ship, from which he received in gratitude two large balls of chandan clay used as a ballast. To the amazement of all in each there was confined a deity form, one of Krishna and one of Balarama, the deity of Krishna with a churner in his hand was called Bala Krishna and was installed in the main Udupi shrine. The sacred lamps at this statue of Bala Krishna recovered from the sea in 14th century were lit by Madhvacharya himself and are being kept burning as a part of the ritual continuously, and that is for the last 700 years.[10][11]
Balarama
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17th century mural of Balarama from a wall hanging in an Indian temple.
Balarama (बलराम, Balarāma), also named Baladeva, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of the divine being, Krishna in Hinduism. Within Vaishnavism and a number of South Indian, Hindu traditions Balarama is worshipped as an avatar of Vishnu, and he is also listed as such in the Bhagavata Purana.[1] Within both the Vaishnava traditions and Hinduism generally he is acknowledged as being a manifestation of Shesha, the serpent on whom Vishnu rests.
The Bhagavata Purana describes Krishna as the original Supreme Personality of Godhead from whom everything else emanates. As part of this divine 'emanation', Krishna's very first expansion is Balarama, and from Balarama all other incarnations of God then appear. Of the three transcendental elements described in Sanskrit as sat, cit and ananda (eternity, knowledge and bliss), Balarama is in charge of eternity and knowledge. Hence he worshipped as the supreme teacher or Adiguru.

Contents
· 1 Birth
o 1.1 Balarama in Gaudiya Vaishnava belief
· 2 Physical Characteristics
o 2.1 In Bhagavata Purana
o 2.2 In Mahābhārata
· 3 Disappearance
· 4 Quotations regarding Balarama
· 5 Gallery
· 6 See also
· 7 References
· 8 External links
[edit] Birth


Krishna-Balarama deities at the Krishna-Balarama Temple in Vrindavan
Balarama was born to Vasudeva and Devaki. Kansa, the brother of Devaki and an evil king, was intent upon killing all the children of his sister because of a prediction that he would die at the hands of her eighth son. Kansa thus threw his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva into prison, and proceeded to kill each of their children as they were born. However, the seventh child was transferred miraculously from Devaki's womb to the womb of Rohini, who had desired a child of her own. Thus Balarama's other name is also Sankarsana which describes the transfer of the child from the womb. The child was formally named Rama, but because of his great strength he was called Balarama (Strong Rama).
Thus, Rohini actually gave birth to Balarama and raised him. Balarama spent his childhood as a cowherd boy with his brother Krishna and friends.He later married Revati, the daughter of King Kakudmi, ruler of Kusasthali and Anarta.
[edit] Balarama in Gaudiya Vaishnava belief


Balarama in Javanese Wayang
Gaudiya Vaishnavas believe that Balarama is the Supreme Personality of Godhead himself. He is worshipped as equal in supremacy to Krishna, yet wherever Krishna appears, Baladeva appears as Krishna's brother, sometimes elder, sometimes younger. Balarama is constantly serving Krishna in every respect in all of Krishna's incarnations and manifestations. In Rama-lila, Balarama serves Ramachandra as his younger Brother, Lakshmana and in the current age (Kali-yuga), Balarama spreads the 'Sankirtan movement' of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as his close friend Nityananda.
The only theological difference between Krishna and Balarama is that the bodily hue of Krishna is dark and that of Balarama is fair. Krishna is the Creator, and Balarama is his creative potency, but they are both worshipped as the Supreme Primeval Lord.
[edit] Physical Characteristics
Balarama is almost always depicted as being fair skinned, especially in comparison to his brother, Krishna, who is shown as dark blue or black. His weapons are the plough and the mace (Sanskrit: gadā). Traditionally Balarama wears blue garments and a garland of forest flowers. His hair is tied in a topknot and he has earrings, bracelets and armlets. Balarama is described as being very physically strong.
[edit] In Bhagavata Purana
One day, Nanda Maharaja requested Gargamuni, the family priest to visit their home in order to give names to Krishna and Balarama. When Gargamuni arrived at his house Nanda Maharaja, received him very well and then requested him to perform the naming ceremony. Gargamuni then reminded Nanda Maharaja that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki and said that if he performed the ceremony very opulently it would come to the notice of Kamsa, who would then suspect that Krishna was the son of Devaki. Nanda Maharaja therefore asked Gargamuni to perform the ceremony in secret, and Gargamuni did so giving the reasons for Balarama's names as follows:
"Because Balarama, the son of Rohini, increases the transcendental bliss of others, His name is Rama, and because of His extraordinary strength, He is called Baladeva. He attracts the Yadus to follow His instructions, and therefore His name is Sankarshana." Bhagavata Purana 10.8.12
[edit] In Mahābhārata


Krishna and Balarama meet their parents. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma
Balarama famously taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of fighting with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama was equally affectionate to both parties and so decided to be neutral. Eventually when Bhima (of greater strength) defeated Duryodhana (of greater skill) by dealing a blow below the navel with his mace (a move against the rules of mace combat), Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was only prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of Bhima's vow to kill Duryodhana by crushing the very thigh he exposed to his wife Draupadi.
[edit] Disappearance
In the Bhagavata Purana it is described that after Balarama took part in the battle that caused the destruction of the rest of the Yadu dynasty, and after he witnessed the disappearance of Krishna, he then sat down in a meditative state and departed from this world.[2] In some accounts it is described that a great white snake left Balarama's mouth at this point in reference to his identity as Ananta-Sesha.
[edit] Quotations regarding Balarama
· "Lord Balarama is the original Vishnu; therefore anyone remembering these pastimes of Lord Balarama in the morning and the evening will certainly become a great devotee of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, and thus his life will become successful in all respects." - A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
· "The splendor of Lord Balarama's transcendental form eclipses many millions of glistening rising moons, and the slightest scent of His boundless strength is sufficient to destroy many armies of demons." - From Appreciating Sri Vrindavana Dhama, pg. 111
Chapter Three
What Are the Tantras and Their Significance?
A VERY common expression in English writings is "The Tantra"; but its use is often due to a misconception and leads to others. For what does Tantra mean? The word denotes injunction (Vidhi), regulation (Niyama), Shastra generally or treatise. Thus Shamkara calls the Samkhya a Tantra. A secular writing may be called Tantra. For the following note I am indebted to Professor Surendranath Das Gupta. "The word 'Tantra' has been derived in the Kashika-Vritti (7-2-9) from the root 'Tan' 'to spread' by the Aunadika rule Sarvadhatubhyah tran, with the addition of the suffix 'tran'. Vacaspati, Anandagiri, and Govindananda, however, derive the word from the root 'Tatri' of 'Tantri' in the sense of Vyutpadana, origination or knowledge. In Ganapatha, however, 'Tantri' has the same meaning as 'Tan' 'to spread' and it is probable that the former root is a modification of the latter. The meaning Vyutpadana is also probably derived by narrowing the general sense of Vistara which is the meaning of the root 'Tan'."
According to the derivation of 'Tantra' from Tan, to spread, Tantra is that (Scripture) by which knowledge (Jñana) is spread (Tanyate, vistaryate jñanam anena, iti Tantram). The Suffix Tra is from the root 'to save'. That knowledge is spread which saves. What is that but religious knowledge? Therefore, as here and generally used, Tantra means a particular kind of religious scripture. The Kamika Agama of the Shaiva Siddhanta (Tantrantara Patala) says:
Tanoti vipulan arthan tattvamantra-samanvitan
Trananca kurute yasmat tantram ityabhidhyate.
(It is called Tantra because it promulgates great knowledge concerning Tattva and Mantra and because it saves.)
It is a common misconception that Tantra is the name only of the Scripture of the Shaktas or worshippers of Shakti. This is not so. There are Tantras of other sects of the Agama, Tantras of Shaivas, Vaishnavas and so forth. We cannot speak of "The Treatise" nor of "The Tantra" any more than we can or do speak of the Purana, the Samhita. We can speak of "the Tantras" as we do of "the Puranas". These Tantras are Shastras of what is called the Agama. In a review of one of my works it was suggested that the Agama is a class of Scriptures dealing with the worship of Saguna Ishvara which was revealed at the close of the age of the Upanishads, and introduced partly because of the falling into desuetude of the Vaidika Acara, and partly because of the increasing numbers of persons entering the Hindu fold who were not competent (Adhikari) for that Acara. I will not however deal with this historical question beyond noting the fact that the Agama is open to all persons of all castes and both sexes, and is not subject to the restrictions of the Vaidika Acara. This last term is a common one and comes from the verbal root char, which means to move or to act, the prefix 3 being probably used in the sense of restriction. Acara thus means practice, way, rule of life governing a Sadhaka, or one who does Sadhana or practice for some desired end (Siddhi).
The Agamas are divided into three main groups according as the Ishtadevata worshipped is Shakti, Shiva or Vishnu. The first is the Shakta Agama, the second the Shaivagama, and the third the Vaishnava Agama or Pancaratra. This last is the Scripture to which the Shrimad Bhagavata (X. 90. 34) refers as Sattvata Tantra in the lines,
Tenoktang sattvatang tantram yaj jnattva muktibhag bhavet
Yatra strishudradasanang sangskaro vaisnavah smritah.
Some Agamas are called Vaidik (Vaidika Agama) and some non-Vaidik (Avaidika). The Kurma Purana (XVI.1) mentions as belonging to the latter, Kapala, Lakula, Vama, Bhairava, Purva, Pashcima, Pañcaratra, Pashupata and many others. Pashupata again is said to be both Vaidika and Avaidika such as Lakula. Kurma Purana (Uttarabhaga, Ch. 38) says "By Me was first composed, for the attainment of Liberation, Shrauta (Vaidika) Pashupata which is excellent, subtle, and secret, the essence of Veda (Vedasara). The learned devoted to Veda should meditate on Shiva Pashupati. This is Pashupata Yoga to be practiced by seekers of Liberation. By Me also have been spoken Pashupata, Soma, Lakula and Bhairava opposed to Veda (Vedavadaviruddhani). These should not be practiced. They are outside Veda." Sanatkumara Samhita says:
Shrautashrautavibhedena dvividhastu shivagamah
Shrutisaramapah shrautah sah punar dvividho matah
Svatantra itarash ceti svatantro dashadha pura
Tatha' shtadashadha pashcat siddhanta iti giyate
Itarah shrutisaras tu shatakoti-pravistarah.
(See also Vayu Samhita, Ch. I. 28
(Shaivagama is of two kinds, Shrauta and Ashrauta. Shrauta is Shrautisaramaya and of two kinds, Svatantra and Itara. Svatantra is first of ten kinds and then Siddhanta of eighteen kinds. (This is the Shaivasiddhanta Agama with 28 Mula Agamas and 207 Upagamas. It is Shuddhadvaita because in it there is no Visheshana). Itara is Shrutisara with numerous varieties. Into this mass of sects I do not attempt here to enter, except in a general way. My subject is the doctrine and ritual of the Shaktas. There are said to be Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Shakta Upanishads favoring one or another doctrine.
We must, however, in all cases distinguish between what a School says of itself and what others say of it. So far as I am aware all Agamas, whatever be their origin, claim now to be based on Shruti, though of course as different interpretations are put on Shruti, those who accept one interpretation are apt to speak of differing Schools as heretical. These main divisions again have subdivisions. Thus there are several Schools of Shaivas; and there are Shaktas with their nine Amnayas, four Sampradayas (Kerala, Kashmira, Gauda and Vilasa) each divided into two-fold division of inner and outer worship (Sammohana Tantra, Ch. V). There is for instance the Northern Shaiva School called Trika of Kashmir, in which country at one time Tantra Shastras were very prevalent. There is again the Southern Shaiva School called Shaivasiddhanta. The Shaktas who are to be found throughout India are largely prevalent in Bengal and Assam. The Shaktas are rather allied with the Northern Advaita Shaiva than with the others, though in them also there is worship of Shakti. Shiva and Shakti are one and he who worships one necessarily worships the other. But whereas the Shaiva predominantly worships Shiva, the Shakta predominantly worships the Shakti side of the Ardhanarishvara Murti, which is both Shiva and Shakti.
Mahavishnu and Sadashiva are also one. As the Sammohana Tantra (Ch. VIII) says, "Without Prakriti the Samsara (World) cannot be. Without Purusha true knowledge cannot be attained. Therefore should both be worshipped; with Mahakali, Mahakala." Some, it says, speak of Shiva, some of Shakti, some of Narayana (Vishnu). But the supreme Narayana (Adinarayana) is supreme Shiva (Parashambhu), the Nirguna Brahman, pure as crystal. The two aspects of the Supreme reflect the one in the other. The Reflection (Pratibimba) is Maya whence the World-Lords (Lokapalas) and the Worlds are born. The Adya Lalita (Mahashakti) at one time assumed the male form of Krishna and at another that of Rama (Ch. IX). For all aspects are in Mahakali, one with Bhairava Mahakala, who is Mahavishnu. "It is only a fool" it says, "who sees any difference between Rama and Shiva." This is of course to look at the matter from the high Vedantik standpoint of Shakta doctrine. Nevertheless separate worship and rituals exist among the Sects. A common philosophical basis of the Shaivas and those of Shaktas, who are Agamavadins, is the doctrine of the Thirty-six Tantras. These are referred to in the Tantra (Ch. VII) so well known in Bengal which is called Kularnava. They are also referred to in other Shakta works and their commentaries such as the Anandalahari. The Sharada Tilaka, a great authority amongst the Bengal Shaktas, is the work of Lakshmanacarya, an author of the Kashmir Shaiva school. The latter school as also the Shaktas are Advaitins. The Shaiva Siddhanta and Pancaratra are Shuddhadvaita and Vishishtadvaita respectively. There is also a great body of Buddhist Tantras of differing schools. (I have published one -- the Shricakra Sambhara Tantra as Vol. VII of Tantrik Texts.) Now all these schools have Tantras of their own. The original connection of the Shaiva schools is said to be shown amongst other things, by the fact that some Tantras arc common, such as Mrigendra and Matanga Tantras. It has been asserted that the Shakta school is not historically connected with the Shaivas. No grounds were given for this statement. Whatever be the historical origins of the former, the two appear to be in several respects allied at present, as any one who knows Shakta literature may find out for himself. In fact Shakta literature is in parts unintelligible to one unacquainted with some features of what is called the Shaiva Darshana. How otherwise is it that the 36 Tattvas and Shadadhva (see my Garland of Letters) are common to both?
The Shaktas have again been divided into three groups. Thus the esteemed Pandit R. Ananta Shastri in the Introduction to his edition of Anandalahari speaks of the Kaula or Shakta Shastras with sixty-four Tantras; the Mishra with eight Tantras; and the Samaya group which are said to be the most important of the Shakta Agamas, of which five are mentioned. This classification purports to be based on the nature of the object pursued, according as it belongs to one or the other of the Purusharthas. Pancaratra literature is very considerable, one hundred and eight works being mentioned by the same Pandit in Vol. XIII, pp. 357-363 of The Theosophist. I would refer the reader also to the very valuable edition of the Ahirbudhnya Samhita by my friend Dr. Otto Schrader, with an Introduction by the learned Doctor on the Pancaratra system where many Vaishnava Tantras and Samhitas are cited. The Trika school has many Tantras of which the leading one is Malinivijaya. The Svacchanda Tantra comes next. Jagadisha Chandra Chattopadhyaya Vidyavaridhi has written with learning and lucidity on this school. The Shaivasiddhanta has twenty-eight leading Tantras and a large number of Upagamas, such as Taraka Tantra, Vama Tantra and others, which will be found enumerated in Schomerus' Der Shaiva-siddhanta, Nallasvami Pillai's Studies in Shaivasiddhanta (p. 294), and Shivajñanasiddihiyar (p. 211). The Sammohana Tantra (Ch. VI) mentions 64 Tantras, 327 Upatantras, as also Yamalas, Damaras, Samhitas and other Scriptures of the Shaiva class; 75 Tantras, 205 Upatantras, also Yamalas, Damaras, Samhitas of the Vaishnava class; numerous Tantras and other scriptures of the Ganapatya and Saura classes, and a number of Puranas, Upapuranas and other variously named Scriptures of the Bauddha class. It then (Ch. VII) mentions over 500 Tantras and nearly the same number of Upatantras, of some 22 Agamas, Cinagama (see Ch. VI post), Buddhagama, Jaina, Pashupata, Kapalika, Pancaratra, Bhairava and others. There is thus a vast mass of Tantras in the Agamas belonging to differing schools of doctrine and practice, all of which must be studied before we can speak with certainty as to what the mighty Agama as a whole is. In this book I briefly deal with one section of it only. Nevertheless when these Agamas have been examined and are better known, it will, I think, be found that they are largely variant aspects of the same general ideas and practices.
As instances of general ideas I may cite the following: the conception of Deity as a supreme Personality (Parahanta) and of the double aspect of God in one of which He really is or becomes the Universe; a true emanation from Him in His creative aspect; successive emanations (Abhasa, Vyuha) as of "fire from fire" from subtle to gross; doctrine of Shakti; pure and impure creation; the denial of unconscious Maya, such as Shamkara teaches; doctrine of Maya Kosha and the Kañcukas (the six Shaiva Kañcukas being, as Dr. Schrader says, represented by the possibly earlier classification in the Pancaratra of the three Samkocas); the carrying of the origin of things up and beyond Purusha-Prakriti; acceptance at a later stage of Purusha-Prakriti, the Samkhyan Gunas, and evolution of Tattvas as applied to the doctrine of Shakti; affirmance of the reality of the Universe; emphasis on devotion (Bhakti); provision for all castes and both sexes.
Instances of common practice are for example Mantra, Bija, Yantra, Mudra, Nyasa, Bhutashuddhi, Kundaliyoga, construction and consecration of temples and images (Kriya), religious and social observances (Carya) such as Ahnika, Varnashramadharma, Utsava; and practical magic (Maya-yoga). Where there is Mantra, Yantra, Nyasa, Diksha, Guru and the like, there is Tantra Shastra. In fact one of the names of the latter is Mantra Shastra. With these similarities there are certain variations of doctrines and practice between the schools. Necessarily also, even on points of common similarity, there is some variance in terminology and exposition which is unessential. Thus when looking at their broad features, it is of no account whether with the Pancaratra we speak of Lakshmi, Shakti, Vyuha, Samkoca; or whether in terms of other schools we speak of Tripurasundari and Mahakali, Tattvas and Kañcukas. Again there are some differences in ritual which are not of great moment except in one and that a notable instance. I refer to the well-known division of worshippers into Dakshinacara and Vamacara. The secret Sadhana of some of the latter (which I may here say is not usually understood) has acquired such notoriety that to most the term "The Tantra" connotes this particular worship and its abuses and nothing else. I may here also observe that it is a mistake to suppose that aberrations in doctrine and practice are peculiar to India. A Missionary wrote to me some years ago that this country was "a demon-haunted land". There are demons here, but they are not the only inhabitants; and tendencies to be found here have existed elsewhere. The West has produced many a doctrine and practice of an antinomian character. Some of the most extreme are to be found there. Moreover, though this does not seem to be recognized, it is nevertheless the fact that these Kaula rites are philosophically based on monistic doctrine. Now it is this Kaula doctrine and practice, limited probably, as being a secret doctrine, at all times to comparatively few, which has come to be known as "The Tantra". Nothing is more incorrect. This is but one division of worshippers who again are but one section of the numerous followers of the Agamas, Shaiva, Shakta and Vaishnava. Though there are certain common features which may be called Tantrik yet one cannot speak of "The Tantra" as though it were one entirely homogeneous doctrine and practice. Still less can we identify it with the particular practices and theories of one division of worshippers only. Further the Tantras are concerned with Science, Law, Medicine and a variety of subjects other than spiritual doctrine or worship. Thus Indian chemistry and medicine are largely indebted to the Tantrikas.
According to a common notion the word "Tantra" is (to use the language of a well-known work) "restricted to the necromantic books of the latter Shivaic or Shakti mysticism" (Waddell's Buddhism of Tibet, p, 164). As charity covers many sins, so "mystic" and "mysticism" are words which cover much ignorance. "Necromancy" too looms unnecessarily large in writers of this school. It is, however, the fact that Western authors generally so understand the term "Tantra". They are, however, in error in so doing as previously explained. Here I shortly deal with the significance of the Tantra Shastra, which is of course also misunderstood, being generally spoken of as a jumble of "black magic," and "erotic mysticism," cemented together by a ritual which is "meaningless mummery". A large number of persons who talk in this strain have never had a Tantra in their hands, and such Orientalists as have read some portions of these Scriptures have not generally understood them, otherwise they would not have found them to be so "meaningless". They may be bad, or they may be good, but they have a meaning. Men are not such fools as to believe for ages in what is meaningless. The use of this term implies that their content had no meaning to them. Very likely; for to define as they do Mantra as "mystical words," Mudra as "mystical gestures" and Yantra as "mystical diagrams" does not imply knowledge. These erroneous notions as to the nature of the Agama are of course due to the mistaken identification of the whole body of the Scripture with one section of it. Further this last is only known through the abuses to which its dangerous practices as carried out by inferior persons have given rise. It is stated in the Shastra itself in which they are prescribed that the path is full of difficulty and peril and he who fails upon it goes to Hell. That there are those who have so failed, and others who have been guilty of evil magic, is well known. I am not in this Chapter concerned with this special ritual or magic but with the practices which govern the life of the vast mass of the Indian people to be found in the Tantras of the Agamas of the different schools which I have mentioned.
A Western writer in a review of one of my books has expressed the opinion that the Tantra Shastra (I think he meant the Shakta) was, at least in its origin, alien and indeed hostile to the Veda. He said: "We are strongly of opinion that in their essence the two principles are fundamentally opposed and that the Tantra only used Vedic forms to mask its essential opposition." I will not discuss this question here. It is, however, the fact now, as it has been for centuries past, that the Agamavadins claim to base their doctrine on Veda. The Vedanta is the final authority and basis for the doctrines set forth in the Tantras, though the latter interpret the Vedanta in various ways. The real meaning of Vedanta is Upanishad and nothing else. Many persons, however, speak of Vedanta as though it meant the philosophy of Shamkara or whatever other philosopher they follow. This of course is incorrect. Vedanta is Shruti. Shamkara's philosophy is merely one interpretation of Shruti just as Ramanuja's is another and that of the Shaivagama or Kaulagama is a third. There is no question of competition between Vedanta as Shruti and Tantra Shastra. It is, however, the fact that each of the followers of the different schools of Agama contend that their interpretation of the Shruti texts is the true one and superior to that of other schools. As a stranger to all these sects, I am not here concerned to show that one system is better than the other. Each will adopt that, which most suits him. I am only stating the facts. As the Ahirbudhnya Samhita of the Pañcaratra Agama says, the aspects of God are infinite, and no philosopher can seize and duly express more than one aspect. This is perfectly true. All systems of interpretation have some merits as they have defects, that of Shamkara included. The latter by his Mayavada is able to preserve more completely than any other interpretation the changelessness and stainlessness of Brahman. It does this, however, at the cost of certain defects, which do not exist in other schools, which have also their own peculiar merits and shortcomings. The basis and seat of authority is Shruti or experience and the Agama interprets Shruti in its own way. Thus the Shaiva-Shakta doctrines are specific solutions of the Vedantic theme which differ in several respects from that of Shamkara, though as they agree (I speak of the Northern Shaiva School) with him on the fundamental question of the unity of Jivatma and Paramatma, they are therefore Advaita.
The next question is how the experience of which the Agama speaks may be gained. This is also prescribed in the Shastra in the form of peculiar Sadhanas or disciplines. In the first place there must be a healthy physical and moral life. To know a thing in its ultimate sense is to be that thing. To know Brahman is, according to Advaita, to be Brahman. One cannot realize Brahman the Pure except by being oneself pure (Shuddhacitta). But to attain and keep this state, as well as progress therein, certain specific means, practices, rituals or disciplines are necessary. The result cannot be got by mere philosophical talk about Brahman. Religion is a practical activity. Just as the body requires exercise, training and gymnastic, so does the mind. This may be of a merely intellectual or spiritual kind. The means employed are called Sadhana which comes from the root "Sadh," to exert. Sadhana is that which leads to Siddhi. Sadhana is the development of Shakti. Man is Consciousness (Atma) vehicled by Shakti in the form of mind and body. But this Shakti is at base Pure Consciousness, just as Atma is; for Atma and Shakti are one. Man is thus a vast magazine of both latent and expressed power. The object of Sadhana is to develop man's Shakti, whether for temporal or spiritual purposes. But where is Sadhana to be found P Seeing that the Vaidika Acara has fallen in practical desuetude we can find it nowhere but in the Agamas and in the Puranas which are replete with Tantrik rituals. The Tantras of these Agamas therefore contain both a practical exposition of' spiritual doctrine and the means by which the truth it teaches may be realized. Their authority does not depend, as Western writers and some of their Eastern followers suppose, on the date when they were revealed but on the question whether Siddhi is gained thereby. This too is the proof of Ayurveda. The test of medicine is that it cures. If Siddhi is not obtained, the fact it is written "Shiva uvaca" (Shiva speaks) or the like counts for nothing. The Agama therefore is a practical exposition and application of Doctrine varying according to its different schools.
The latest tendency in modern Western philosophy is to rest upon intuition, as it was formerly the tendency to glorify dialectic. Intuition has, however, to be led into higher and higher possibilities by means of Sadhana. This term means work or practice, which in its result is the gradual unfolding of the Spirit's vast latent magazine of power (Shakti), enjoyment and vision which everyone possesses in himself. The philosophy of the Agama is, as a friend and collaborator of mine, Professor Pramathanatha Mukhyo-padhyaya, very well put it, a practical philosophy, adding, that what the intellectual world wants to-day is this sort of philosophy; a philosophy which not merely argues but experiments. The form which Sadhana takes is a secondary matter. One goal may be reached by many paths. What is the path in any particular case depends on considerations of personal capacity and temperament, race and faith. For the Hindu there is the Agama which contains forms of discipline which his race has evolved and are therefore prima facie suitable for him. This is not to say that these forms are unalterable or acceptable to all. Others will adopt other forms of Sadhana suitable to them. Thus, amongst Christians, the Catholic Church prescribes a full and powerful Sadhana in its Sacraments (Samskara) and Worship (Puja, Upasana), Meditation (Dhyana), Rosary (Japa) and the like. But any system to be fruitful must experiment to gain experience, The significance of the Tantra Shastra lies in this that it claims to afford a means available to all, of whatever caste and of either sex, whereby the truths taught may be practically realized.
The Tantras both in India and Tibet are the expression of principles which are of universal application. The mere statement of religious truths avails not. What is necessary for all is a practical method of realization. This too the occultist needs. Further the ordinary run of mankind can neither apprehend, nor do they derive satisfaction from mere metaphysical concepts. They accept them only when presented in personal form. They care not for Shunyata, the Void, nor Saccidananda in the sense of mere Consciousness -- Being -- Bliss. They appeal to personal Bodhisattvas, Buddhas, Shiva, Vishnu, Devi who will hear their prayer, and grant them aid. Next they cannot stand by themselves. They need the counsel and guidance of priest and Guru and the fortifying virtues of the sacraments. They need a definite picture of their object of worship, such as is detailed in the Dhyana of the Devatas, an image, a Yantra, a Mandala and so forth, a developed ritual and pictorial religion. This is not to say that they are wrong. These natural tendencies, however, become accentuated in course of time to a point where "superstition," mechanical devotion and lifeless formalism and other abuses are produced. There then takes place what is called a "Reform," in the direction of a more spiritual religion. This too is accentuated to the point of barrenness. Religion becomes sterile to produce practical result and ritual and pictorial religion recurs. So Buddhism, which in its origin has been represented to be a reaction against excessive and barren ritualism, could not rest with a mere statement of the noble truths and the eightfold path. Something practical was needed. The Mahayana (Thegpa Chhenpo) was produced. Nagarjuna in the second century A.D. (?) is said to have promulgated ideas to be found in the Tantras. In order to realize the desired end, use was made of all the powers of man, physical and mental. Theistic notions as also Yoga came again to the fore in the Yogacarya and other Buddhist systems. The worship of images and an elaborate ritual was introduced. The worship of the Shaktis spread. The Mantrayana and Vajrayana found acceptance with, what an English writer (The Buddhism of Tibet by L. Waddell) describes in the usual style as its "silly mummery of unmeaning jargon and gibberish," the latter being said to be "the most depraved form of Buddhist doctrine." So-called Tantrik Buddhism became thus fully developed. A Tantrik reformer in the person of Tsongkhapa arose, who codified the Tantras in his work Lam-rim Chhen-mo. The great code, the Kah-gyur, contains in one of its sections the Tantras (Rgyud) containing ritual, worship of the Divine Mothers, theology, astrology and natural science, as do their Indian counterparts. These are of four classes, the Kriya, Carya, Yoga, Anuttara Tantras, the latter comprising Maha, Anu and Ati-Yoga Tantras. The Tan-ghur similarly contains many volumes of Tantras (Rgyud). Then, at length, Buddhism was driven from out of India. Brahmanism and its rituals survived and increased, until both in our day and the nearer past we see in the so-called reformed sects a movement towards what is claimed to be a more spiritual religion. Throughout the ages the same movements of action and reaction manifest. What is right here lies in the middle course. Some practical method and ritual is necessary if religion is not to be barren of result. The nature of the method and ritual will vary according to the capacity and development of men. On the other hand, the "crooked influence of time" tends to overlay the essential spiritual truths with unintelligent and dead formalism. The Tantra Shastra stands for a principle of high value though, like other things admittedly good, it is capable of, and has suffered, abuse. An important point in this connection should be noted. In Europe we see extreme puritan reaction with the result that the religious movements which embody them become one-sided and without provision for ordinary human needs. Brahmanism has ever been all-inclusive, producing a Sadhana of varying kinds, material and mental, for the different stages of spiritual advancement and exempting from further ritual those for whom, by reason of their attainment, it is no longer necessary.

Next: Chapter Four: Tantra Shastra and Veda
Gopi
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Krishna with Gopis - Painting from the Smithsonian Institution
Gopi is a word of Sanskrit (गोपी) origin meaning 'cow-herd girl'. In Hinduism specifically the name gopi (sometimes gopika) is used more commonly to refer to the group of cow herding girls famous within Vaishnava Theology for their unconditional devotion (Bhakti) to Krishna as described in the stories of Bhagavata Purana and other Puranic literatures. Of this group, one gopi known as Srimati Radharani holds a place of particularly high reverence and importance in a number of religious traditions, especially within Gaudiya Vaishnavism.

Contents
· 1 Prominent Gopis
· 2 Unconditional love
· 3 See also
· 4 Other meanings of Gopi
· 5 External links
[edit] Prominent Gopis
The gopis of Vrindavan, who total one hundred and eight in number, are generally divided into three groups: Gopi friends of the same age as Krishna; maidservants; and gopi messengers. The first group, Krishna's contemporary gopi friends, are the most exalted, the second group, the maidservants are the next most exalted, and the gopi messengers come after them. The primary eight gopis are considered the foremost of Krishna's devotees after Srimati Radharani. Their names are as follows :
· Lalita (gopi) Sakhi
· Visakha Sakhi
· Campakalata Sakhi
· Citra Sakhi
· Tungavidya Sakhi
· Indulekha Sakhi
· Rangadevi Sakhi
· Sudevi Sakhi
· Gopinath Kathiresan
[edit] Unconditional love


Gopis as depicted in portrait at the Smithsonian Institution
According to Hindu Vaishnava theology the stories concerning the gopis are said to exemplify Suddha-bhakti which is described as 'the highest form of unconditional love for God' (Krishna). Their spontaneous and unwavering devotion is described in depth in the later chapters of the Bhagavata Purana, within Krishna's Vrindavan pastimes and also in the stories of the sage Uddhava.



Devi Mahatmya
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The oldest surviving manuscript of the Devi Māhātmya, on palm-leaf, in an early Bhujimol script, Bihar or Nepal, 11th century.

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Without rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Indic characters; or irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts.
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The Devi Mahatmya (Sanskrit: devīmāhātmyam, देवीमाहात्म्यम्), or "Glory of the Goddess") is a Hindu scripture written in Sanskrit by Markandeya Rishi as part of the Markandeya Purana. It was composed some 1,600 years ago, c. 400-500 CE.
Devi Mahatmya is also known as the Durgā Saptashatī (ढुर्गासप्तशती) or simply Saptashatī, Caṇḍī (चण्डी) or Caṇḍī Pāṭha (चण्डीपाठः) - where pāṭha – "reading" – refers to the act of ritual reading. The text contains 700 (saptashata - "seven hundred") verses, arranged into 13 chapters.
By far the most important text of Shaktism (it is sometimes referred to as the "Shakta Bible"[1]), the Devi Mahatmya is the first religious text to define the Supreme Reality (God) as a female principle. The text is a compilation and synthesis of far older myths and legends, skillfully integrated into a single narrative.[2]
The significance of Devi Mahatmya among the Puranas is indicated by the early dates at which it was translated into European languages. It has also been translated into most Indian vernaculars.
Devi Mahatmya lies at the base and root of Shakta religion, and forms the center of the great Shakti traditions. The Devi Mahatmya is treated as if it were a Vedic hymn. The oral tradition of the text plays an important role in the ritualistic traditions of Shakta Hindus. The entire text is considered one mantra.
Devi Mahatmya is based on the Samkhya philosophy. It is a synthesis of the then prevailing local Mother goddess cults of Aryan and non-Aryan origin. In it the Goddess is Shakti, power itself, beyond the patriarchal relegation of consorting with any eclipsing male deity or patriarchal construct. The three episodes of the text may be considered allegories of outer and inner experience.
The four hymns in the text are considered sweet and sublime. [3] For ritual reading purposes a number of subsidiary texts are appended before and after. A ritual reading of this text is part of the Navaratri celebrations in honour of the Goddess. Devi Mahatmya is also the basis of the popular rite of Chandi yajna.







Contents
· 1 Etymology
· 2 Significance
· 3 Place in the Hindu canon
· 4 Philosophy
· 5 Contents
o 5.1 First Episode
o 5.2 Middle Episode
o 5.3 Final Episode
o 5.4 Symbolism of the three episodes
o 5.5 Hymns
· 6 Angās (Appendages)
o 6.1 Preceding subsidiary texts
o 6.2 Succeeding subsidiary texts
· 7 Mantra
· 8 Devi Mahatmya in popular tradition
· 9 Notes
· 10 References
· 11 Further reading
· 12 See also
· 13 External links
[edit] Etymology
Sanskrit māhātmya- "magnanimity, highmindedness, majesty" is a neuter abstract noun of māha-ātman- "great soul". The title devīmāhātmyam is a tatpurusha compound, literally translating to "the magnanimity of the goddess".
The text is called Saptasati as it contains 700 shlokas. (sapta=7,shata=100) verses. This count includes even one line sentences which are not strictly verses. There is another opinion that the name should be Saptaśati as it deals with the story of seven Satis or "pious persons". The seven mothers are Brāhmi, Māheśwari, Kaumāri, Vaisṇavi, Vārāhi, Indrāṇi, and Cāmunḍa.[4]
Caṇḍī or Caṇḍīka is the name by which the Supreme Goddess is referred to in Devī Māhātmya. According to Coburn, "Caṇḍīkā is "the violent and impetuous one", from the adjective caṇḍa "fierce, violent, cruel". The epithet is unprecedented in Vedic literature and is first found in a late insertion to the Mahabharata, where Chaṇḍā and Chaṇḍī appear as epithets."[5]
[edit] Significance
The Devi Mahatmya was considered significant among the Puranas by Indologists. This is indicated by the early dates at which it was translated into European languages. It was translated into English in 1823, followed by an analysis with excerpts in French in 1824. It was translated into Latin in 1831 and Greek in 1853.[6]
Devi Mahatmya has been translated into most of the Indian languages. There are also a number of commentaries and ritual manuals. The commentaries and ritual manual followed vary from region to region depending on the tradition.
[edit] Place in the Hindu canon
Devi Māhātmyam has been called the Testament of Shakta philosophy[7] It is the base and root of Shakta doctrine. [8] It appears as the centre of the great Shakti cult.[9]


Devi portrayed as Mahishasura Mardini, Slayer of the Buffalo Demon – a central episode of the Devi Mahatmya
The Devi Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, but it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G.[10]
Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition."[11]
The unique feature of Devi Māhātmyam is the oral tradition. Though it is part of the devotional tradition, it is in the rites of the Hindus that it plays an important role. The entire text is considered as one single Mantra and a collection of 700 Mantras.
The Devi Māhātmyam is treated in the cultic context as if it were a Vedic hymn or verse with sage(ṛṣi), meter, pradhnadevata, and viniyoga (for japa). It has been approached, both by Hindus and Western scholars, as scripture in and by itself, where its significance is intrinsic, not derived from its Puranic context.[12]
According to Damara Tantra "Like Aswamedha in Yagnas, Hari in Devas, Sapthsati is in hymns." "Like the Vedas; Saptasati is eternal" says Bhuvaneshwari Samhita.[13]
There are many commentaries on Devi Māhātmya. Santhanavi, Puspanjali, Ramashrami, Nagesi, Dhamsoddharam, Guptavati, and Durgapradeepam are some of them.[14] The significance of Devi Māhātmya has been explained in many Tantric and Puranic texts like Katyayani Tantra, Gataka Tantra, Krodha Tantra, Meru Tantram, Marisa Kalpam, Rudra Yamala, and Chidambara Rahasya.[15]A number of studies of Shaktism appreciate the seminal role of Devi Māhātmya in the development of the Shakta tradition.
[edit] Philosophy


Mahakali - Presiding Goddess of the first episode.
Devi Mahatmya accepts the ancient Vedic tradition in the form of Vāk and Trayī Vidyā and the philosophical doctrine of the codified system of Samkhya (Prakriti manifesting as the three Gunas) and Vedānta as Paramavidyā, the cause of Mukti. Further it synthesizes the then prevailing local Mother goddess cults of Aryan and non-Aryan origin.[16]
In the first chapter it is said "all lives are conscious, but that knowledge is connected with senses. That goddess Bhagavatī, granting all kinds of prosperity, makes even the wise attracted to worldly pleasures and things forcibly with her great power of attraction. This ever-changing world with all its animate and inanimate things, is created by her. As the cause of salvation she turns into supreme spiritual knowledge, and is thus eternal; and again as the cause of bondage to worldly things she turns into things mundane and is the mistress of all, including Gods. She is eternal (and is thus beyond our knowledge) and pervades the world which may accordingly be called her form. Yet for the assistance of the lustrous souls, she appears in different forms."[17]
Though the figure of Shiva is known in Devī Māhātmya the goddess bears no special relationship to him. In fact she bears no special relationship with anyone other than her devotees. While each God has a Sakti, Devī Māhātmya avoids characterizing such forms as consorts, for the Goddess is Shakti, power itself beyond the realm of being a consort to anyone. Devī Māhātmya does not know the conceptualization that Sakti is feminine and its possessor or vehicle masculine, for as it is seen, the Goddess herself can put forth a Sakti.[18]
[edit] Contents
The Devī Māhātmya consists of chapters 81-93 of the Mārkandeya Purana, one of the early Sanskrit Puranas, which is a set of stories being related by the sage Markandeya to Jaimini and his students (who are in the form of birds). The thirteen chapters of Devi Māhātmya are divided into three charitas or episodes. At the beginning of each episode a different presiding goddess is invoked, none of whom is mentioned in the text itself.[19]
The framing narrative of Devi Mahatmya presents a dispossessed king, a merchant betrayed by his family, and a sage whose teachings lead them both beyond existential suffering. The sage instructs by recounting three different epic battles between the Devi and various demonic adversaries (the three tales being governed by, respectively, Mahakali (Chapter 1), Mahalakshmi (Chapters 2-4) and Mahasaraswati (Chapters 5-13). Most famous is the story of Mahishasura Mardini – Devi as "Slayer of the Buffalo Demon" – one of the most ubiquitous images in Hindu art and sculpture, and a tale known almost universally in India. Among the important goddess forms the Devi Mahatmyam introduced into the Sanskritic mainstream are Kali and the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Mothers").[20]
[edit] First Episode


Vishnu killing Madhu-Kaitabh - a folio from Devi Mahatmya
The first story of the Devi Mahatmya depicts Devi in her universal form as Shakti. Here Devi is central and key to the creation myth; she is the power that induces Vishnu's deep slumber on the waters of the cosmic ocean prior to the manifestation of the Universe which is a continuous cycle of manifestation, destruction and re-manifestation. Vishnu reclines on the nāga shesha during yoganidra. Two demons arise as thoughtforms from Vishnu's sleeping body and endeavour to vanquish Brahma who is preparing to create the next cycle of the Universe. Brahma sings to the Great Goddess, asking her to withdraw from Vishnu so he may awaken and slay the demons. Devi agrees to withdraw and Vishnu awakens and vanquishes the demons. Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored.[21]
[edit] Middle Episode
"Durga, the great Warrior Goddess, represents the lethal energy of divine anger when turned against evil. The world was under attack by Mahishasura, the most evil demon in the world, who took many different forms, including that of a buffalo. The male gods, fearing total annihilation endowed Durga with their powers. Riding a lion into battle, Durga slew the buffalo by cutting off its head and then she destroyed the spirit of the demon as it emerged from the buffalo's severed neck. It is through this act that order was established in the world."[22]


The Goddess Ambika or Durga Leading the Eight Matrikas in Battle Against the Demon Raktabija, Folio from a Devi Mahatmya - (top row, from the left) the Matrikas - Narashmi, Vaishnavi, Kumari, Maheshvari, Brahmi. (bottom row, from left) Varahi, Aindri, Chamunda or Kali(drinking the demon's blood), Ambika. on the right, demons arising from Raktabija's blood
[edit] Final Episode
Kali may be understood to represent or "aspect" the darker, chthonic, transformative qualites of Devi's power or Shakti. Kali's emergence is chronicled in the third story of the Devi Mahatmya. Kali emerges from Devi's third eye as a burst of psychic energy. Kali overpowers and beheads Chanda and Munda, and when she delivers their severed heads to Devi, she is dubbed Chamunda.
During a fierce battle in which the Great Goddess demonstrates her omnipotence by defeating powerful demons who terrify the devas, she encounters the fierce Raktabija. Every drop of blood Raktabija sheds transforms into another demon as it touches the earth. A unique strategy has to be devised to vanquish him. A fiery burst of energy emerging from Devi's third eye takes the dark skeletal form of goddess Kali. With her huge mouth and enormous tongue she ferociously laps up Raktabija's blood, thus preventing the uprising of further demons.
The story continues in which Devi, Kali and a group of Matrikas destroy the demonic brothers Shumbha and Nishumbha. In the final battle against Shumbha, Devi absorbs Kali and the matrikas and stands alone for the final battle.[23]
[edit] Symbolism of the three episodes
Coburn says: "The sage's three tales are allegories of outer and inner experience, symbolized by the fierce battles the all-powerful Devi wages against throngs of demonic foes. Her adversaries represent the all-too-human impulses arising from the pursuit of power, possessions and pleasure, and from illusions of self-importance. Like the battlefield of the Bhagavad Gita, the Devi Mahatmya's killing grounds represent the field of human consciousness ... The Devi, personified as one supreme Goddess and many goddesses, confronts the demons of ego and dispels our mistaken idea of who we are, for – paradoxically – it is she who creates the misunderstanding in the first place, and she alone who awakens us to our true being."[24]
[edit] Hymns


Mahalakshmi - The presiding Goddess of the Middle episode.
Coburn has said:
"While, in terms of quantity of verses, the Goddess's martial exploits are predominant, in terms of quality, these are surpassed by verses of another genre, viz., the hymns to the Goddess. Much of the power of the Devī Māhātmya derives from the way in which the hymnic material is held in counterpoint to the discursive account of her salvific activity in the world, but to the reader-hearer it is clear that the devotional fervor of the text, and the synthetic work it is performing, emerge most intensely in the hymns."[25]
The four Hymns are:
1. Brahma-stuti also known as Tantrik Ratri Suktam (Chapter 1): In the first episode, when Brahma hymns Yoganidra, requesting her withdrawal from Vishnu so that he can slay Madhu and Kaitaba.[26]
2. Sakradi-stuti (Chapter 4): At the end of second episode, after the Goddess has vanquished demon Mahishasura and his hordes, the Gods with first god Indra , praise her.[27]
3. The "Ya Devi" Hymn also known as Aparajita-stuti or Tantrik Devi Suktam (Chapter 5): At the beginning of the third episode, when the beleaguered gods recall the Goddess's promise to assist them, they head to Mount Himavan and there offer a hymn to the Goddess.[28]
4. Narayani-stuti (Chapter 11): At the conclusion of the third episode, after the Goddess has disposed of Sumbha and Nisumbha, she is hymned by the Gods.[29]
[edit] Angās (Appendages)
As an independent text, Devī Māhātmya has acquired a number of "limbs" or "subsidiary texts" or "appendages" (angas) over the years "fore and aft". According to Coburn "artistic evidence suggests that the angas have been associated with the text since the fourteenth century." The angas are chiefly concerned with the ritual use of Devī Māhātmya and based on the assumption that the text will be recited aloud in the presence of images.[30]
[edit] Preceding subsidiary texts


Mahasaraswati - The presiding Goddess of the final episode.
· Durga Saptasloki also known as "Amba Stuti" - They are introduced as one-verse query from Siva who asks about the means of achieving what is desired, and a one verse response from the Goddess who says she will proclaim the relevant discipline (sadhana) by revealing Amba Studi which consists of the seven verses indicated.[31]
· Devi-kavacham - The Devi Kavacham consisting of 61 Slokas is in Markandeya Purana. This Kavacham (armour) protects the reader in all parts of his body, in all places and in all difficulties.[32]
· Argala-stotram - Here Rishi Markandeya is telling his disciples in 27 inspiring couplets on the greatness of Devi. She has been described in all aspects and names and at the end of each Sloka, prayer is offered to Devi for material prosperity, physical fitness, fame and victory.[32]
· Keelakam - Here also Rishi Markandeya tells his disciples in 16 Slokas, the ways and means of removing obstacles faced by devotees, while reading Devi Mahatmya.[32]
· Ratri Suktam (Vedic) - Ratri Suktam (8 Slokas) has been taken from Rig Veda, 10th Mandala, 10th Anuvaka, 127 th Sukta,which shows that Devi was worshipped from time immemorial. Devi is described as the all-pervading Supreme Lord of the Universe appearing in Omkara. Here Ratri is the Goddess who fulfills our prayers.[32]
· Ratri Suktam (Tantrik) - The hymn in the first chapter is the Tantrik Ratri Sukta.[33]
Either the Ratri Suktam (Vedic) or Ratri Suktam (Tantrik) is read depending upon whether the ritual is Vaidic or Tantrik.
One of the texts recited by some traditions is the Devī-Atharva-Śirṣa-Upaniṣad (Devi Upaniṣad).
[edit] Succeeding subsidiary texts
· Pradhana Rahasyam - "Deals with the process of creation. It is the secret about mula Prakrti who is the cause of creation."[34]
· Vaikritika Rahasyam - "Describes how the Godhead beyond change subjected itself to change, how the mula prakrti (productive) ,became vikriti (produced); hence the name Vaikritika Rahasyam."[34]
· Murti Rahasyam - "The incarnations, the avatāra murtis of the Goddess are mentioned."[34]
· Devi Suktam (Rig Vedoktam) - (According to Rig Veda): "The 8 Slokas composed by Vak, the daughter of Maharshi Ambharin, are from the Rig Veda, 10th Mandala, 10th Anuvaka, 125th Sukta. These Slokas express the truth realised by Vak, who identifies herself as Brahma Sakti, and expresses herself as 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus, 12 Adityas and all the Devas,— Indra, Agni and Asvini Kumaras—who are sustained by Her and She is the source, substratum and support of the whole world. She is verily Brahmasvarupini (embodiment of Brahman)."[32]
· Devi Suktam (Tantrik) - The hymn in chapter 5 is Tantrik Devi Suktam.[35]
The number and order of these depend on the Sampradaya (tradition).[36][37]
Either the Devi Suktam (Vedic) or Devi Suktam (Tantrik) is read depending upon whether the ritual is Vedic or Tantrik.
At the end of a traditional recitation of the text, a prayer craving pardon from the Goddess known as Aparadha Kshmapana Stotram is recited.
[edit] Mantra
Bhāskararāya in his commentary "Guptavatīi" has noted that, among the mantras related to the worship of Brahman cum Sakthi with attributes, the Navārna mantra and Saptasati are preeminent. Saptasati here is understood as constituting one very long mantra. Navārna mantra has been explained in Devī-Atharva-Śirṣa-Upaniṣad (Devi Upaniṣad).[38]
The Navārna Mantra is also known as Chandi or Navakshari (the one with nine-syllables).
The mantra is:
oṁ aiṁ hrīṁ klīṁ cāmuṇḍayāi vicce
ॐ ऐं ह्रीं क्लीं चामुण्डायै विच्चे
The Navārna mantra is recited before and after the recitation of Devī Māhātmya.
[edit] Devi Mahatmya in popular tradition
The recitation of Devi Mahatmya is done during the Sharad Navaratri (Oct. - Nov.) in Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat and south India. The text is also recited during the Vasantha Navaratri (March - April) in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and other states of north India.[1][2]
Devi Mahatmya is the ritual text for performing Chandi Yajna . This is one of the most popular Yagnas conducted throughout India. This is performed for the general welfare of the people.[3]
[edit] Notes
Radha
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For Radha, the mother of Karna from Mahabharata, see: Radha (Mahabharata)


A Rajastani style painting of Sri Radha
Radha (Devanagari: राधा) is the principal paramour of Krishna in the Srimad Bhagavatam, and the Gita Govinda of the Hindu religion. Within some Vaishnava traditions of Hinduism, Radha is regarded as a primary deity, often worshiped as an incarnation of Goddess Lakshmi. Radha is almost always depicted alongside Krishna and features prominently within the theology of today's Gaudiya Vaishnava religion, which regards Radha as the original Goddess or Shakti. Radha's relationship with Krishna is given in further detail within texts such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Garga Samhita and Brihad Gautamiya tantra. Radha is also the principal object of worship in the Nimbarka Sampradaya, as Nimbarka, the founder of the tradition, declared that Radha and Krishna together constitute the absolute truth.[1]
Radha is often referred to as Radharani in speech, prefixed with the respectful term 'Srimati' by devout followers.

Contents
· 1 Radha the Gopi
o 1.1 Within Vaishnavism
o 1.2 Birth
o 1.3 Nimbarka
o 1.4 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
o 1.5 Festivals
o 1.6 The foremost of the Gopis
· 2 Names & Worship
o 2.1 Temples dedicated to Radha
· 3 Quotations about Radha
· 4 Husband of Radha
· 5 See also
· 6 Further reading
· 7 Footnotes
· 8 External links
o 8.1 General Information
o 8.2 Festivals
o 8.3 Names of Radha
o 8.4 Further Resources
[edit] Radha the Gopi
In the story of Krishna, as told in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana, he spends much of his youth in the company of young cow-herd girls, called Gopis in the village of Vrindavan. The Mahabharata does not describe Krishna's earlier life in Vrindavan in much detail, and focuses more on the later battle of Kurukshetra but within the Bhagavata Purana the child-hood pastimes of Krishna are described very vividly. Within the Bhagavata Purana, Radha is not mentioned by name but is alluded to within the tenth chapter of the text as one of the gopis who Krishna plays with during his upbringing as a young boy. It is in later texts such as the Gita Govinda where we find the story of Radha given in more detail.
[edit] Within Vaishnavism


Radha with Krishna, as painted by Raja Ravi Varma
In the Vaishnava devotional or bhakti traditions of Hinduism that focus on Krishna, Radha is Krishna's consort. For some of the adherents of these traditions, her importance approaches or even exceeds that of Krishna. She is considered to be his original shakti, the supreme goddess in both the Nimbarka Sampradaya and following the advent of Chaitanya also within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. Other gopis are usually considered to be her maidservants, with Radha having the prominent position of Krishna's favour.
Her connection to Krishna is of two types: svakiya-rasa (married relationship) and parakiya-rasa (a relationship signified with eternal love).
In the Nimbarka Sampradaya, Radha's relationship with Krishna is characterised by the svakiya-rasa, based on texts in the Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Garga Samhita describing the wedding of Radha and Krishna. The Gaudiya tradition focuses upon parakiya-rasa as the highest form of love, wherein Radha and Krishna share loving exchanges through separation. The love the gopis feel for Krishna is also described in this esoteric manner as the highest platform of spontaneous love of God, and not of a mundane sexual nature. Proponents of the Gaudiya and Nimbarka schools of Vaishnavism give the highly esoteric nature of Radha's relationship to Krishna as the reason why her story is not mentioned in detail in the earlier Puranic texts.[citation needed]
[edit] Birth
Vaishnava tradition states that Radha was born in either Varshana, or Rawal, a village about 8 kilometers from Vrindavan, near present day New Delhi in India.[2] There are a number of accounts of her parentage. According to one of the common ones, her father is the leader (sometimes regarded as king) of cowherds called Vrishabhanu, and her mother is called Kamalavati, or Kirtida.
Her worship is especially prominent in Vrindavan, the place where Krishna is said to have lived over 5000 years ago. Wherein Her importance surpasses even the importance of Krishna. Radha's love for Krishna is held within Gaudiya Vaishnavism as the most perfect primarily because of its endless and unconditional nature. Thus she is the most important consort of Krishna, 'His heart and soul', and His 'hladini-shakti' (spiritual pleasure potency).
In the Brihad-Gautamiya Tantra, Radharani is described as follows: "The transcendental goddess Srimati Radharani is the direct counterpart of Lord Sri Krishna. She is the central figure for all the goddesses of fortune. She possesses all the attractiveness to attract the all-attractive Personality of Godhead. She is the primeval internal potency of the Lord."
[edit] Nimbarka
Nimbarka was the first Vaishnava acharya to disseminate teachings about Radha.[3][4]
[edit] Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
The Bengali saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 - 1534) is believed by many (see especially the modern-day ISKCON movement) to be an incarnation of both Radha and Krishna, simultaneously in one form. Throughout his life, Chaitanya lived as a devotee of Vaishnava tradition, not openly claiming to be any form of avatar, but in his biographies it is claimed that he revealed his divine form to some of his closer associates.[5]
[edit] Festivals


Radha (right) with Krishna at Krishna-Balarama Temple in Vrindavan
Radha's birthday is celebrated as Radhastami.During this time devotees are allowed special sanctions not normally allowed. For example, Radha's name is normally not chanted due to the possibility of committing offenses towards her. Neither are all devotees qualified to enter into her kunda, or lake, which is considered holy. On the festival day of the appearance of Radha Kunda (Radharani's lake), devotees wait up until midnight in order to bathe there. And there is much recitation of her holy names on her "appearance day" or "birthday". She is said to "appear" because she does not take birth or die, being an eternal associate of Krishna, both of whom are liberated. She is the most chaste woman, "married" to Krishna.
[edit] The foremost of the Gopis
The Padma Purana describes 18,000 cowherd-girls (gopis) among whom it says 108 are the most important. Among those 108, eight are considered more important still, and among the eight, two have a special position - Chandravali and Radharani. Of the two, Radha is considered the foremost.
[edit] Names & Worship


Temple in Varsana, dedicated to the worship of Radha and Krishna
Radha has many epithets describing her qualities and characteristics.
· Gandharvi - expert singer[6]
· Govinda-nandini - She who gives pleasure to Govinda (Krishna)
· Govinda-mohini - She who mystifies Govinda
· Govinda-sarvasva - the all-in-all of Govinda
· Sarva-kanta Shiromani - the crown jewel of all Krishna's consorts
· Krishnamayi - the one who sees Krishna both within and without
· Radhika - Her worship of the Krishna consists of fulfilling His desires
· Madan-Mohan-Mohini - Within Gaudiya tradition Krishna (as the Supreme Person) is believed to be the enchanter of all living beings, including even Kamadeva (Madan) - the god of attraction. Because Radha has the unique position of being able to enchant even Krishna she is therefore know as Madan-Mohan-Mohini: the enchanter of the enchanter of Cupid.
· Aradhana - The root name of Radharani, meaning one who excels in worshiping Krishna
· Sarva-lakshmi - The original source of all the goddesses of fortune
· Vrshabhanu-nandini - daughter of Vrishabanu
· Vrndavaneshvari - Queen of Vrindavana
· Lalita-Sakhi - friend of the gopi Lalita
· Gokula-Taruni - She whom all young girls of Gokul worship
· Damodara Rati - She who dresses herself to please Damodara (Krishna)
· Radharani – Radha the queen
· RadhaKrishna - Worship of Krishna with Radha
One of her names, Hara (mentioned in Narada-pancaratra 5.5.59), in vocative Hare, forms a part of the Hare Krishna 'Maha-Mantra', one of the most popular Vedic mantras, especially amongst Gaudiya Vaishnavas. Radharani's names hold a place of prime importance within Gaudiya Vaishnava religious practices.
[edit] Temples dedicated to Radha
· Barsana and Vrindavan in Mathura District, Northern India contain a large number of temples dedicated to both Radha and Krishna, including the Radhavallabh Temple. [7]
· Barsana Dham in Austin, Texas, USA, one of the largest Hindu temples in the western Hemisphere.[8]
Temple Deities in India and abroad are generally named in order of Radharani first and then Krishna. Krishna is approachable through the mercy of Srimati Radharani and no one else. So for example, if one were to enter the Govindaji temple in Vrindavan the Deities are named Radha Govinda and devotees of Krishna would pray to Radha and Govinda not just Krishna. This is because Krishna is controlled by Radharani's love.
[edit] Quotations about Radha
· "Although the effulgence of the moon is brilliant initially at night, in the daytime it fades away. Similarly, although the lotus is beautiful during the daytime, at night it closes. But, O My friend, the face of My most dear Srimati Radharani is always bright and beautiful, both day and night. Therefore, to what can Her face be compared?" (Vidagdha-madhava 5.20)
· "When Srimati Radharani smiles, waves of joy overtake Her cheeks, and Her arched eyebrows dance like the bow of Cupid. Her glance is so enchanting that it is like a dancing bumblebee, moving unsteadily due to intoxication. That bee has bitten the whorl of My heart." (Vidagdha-madhava 2.51)
· "Just as Srimati Radharani is most dear to Krishna, Her bathing pond is similarly dear. Of all the gopis, She is the most beloved of the Lord." (Padma Purana)
· "The transcendental goddess Srimati Radharani is the direct counterpart of Lord Sri Krishna. She is the central figure for all the goddesses of fortune. She possesses all attractiveness to attract the all-attractive Personality of Godhead. She is the primeval internal potency of the Lord." (Brihad-gautamiya-tantra)
· "Among all persons, it is Sri Radha in whose company Lord Madhava is especially glorious, as She is especially glorious in His." (Rig-parisishta)
· "Radharani is the source of spiritual inspiration" (A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada)
[edit] Husband of Radha
In a number of versions of her story, although Radha's first love is Krishna (whom she knows through her childhood) she is later forced to marry Abhimanyu, the son of Jatila. One source for this information is Sri Sri Camatkara Candrika by Srila Visvanatha Cakravarti Thakura. Other traditions give the name of the husband of Radha as 'Chandrasena'
Krishna
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Krishna

Krishna with Radha, 18th C Rajasthani painting
Devanagari कृष्ण
Affiliation Avatar of Vishnu, Svayam bhagavan
Abode Vrindavan, Dwarka
Weapon Discus (Sudarshana Chakra)
Consort Radha, Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati.
Mount Garuda
Sastra Bhagavata Purana, Bhagavad-gita
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This article is about the Hindu deity. For other meanings, see Krishna (disambiguation).
Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari, kṛṣṇa in IAST, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳə] in classical Sanskrit) is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism.
Krishna is often described as a dark-skinned man during his earthly descent, often depicted as a baby, as a young cowherd boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[1] or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[2]
The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[3][4] Though they sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, some core features are shared by all.[5] These include a divine incarnation, a pastoral childhood and youth, and life as a heroic warrior and teacher.
The worship of Krishna - in Hinduism - is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates his associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[6] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[7] where Krishna is considered an independent deity, supreme in its own right.[8] All Vaishnava traditions recognize Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[9][10] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the svayam bhagavan, original form of God, or the Lord himself.[11][12][13] [14][15]

Contents
· 1 Etymology and names
· 2 Iconography
· 3 Literary sources
· 4 Life
o 4.1 Birth
o 4.2 Childhood and youth
o 4.3 The prince
o 4.4 The Kurukshetra war and the Bhagavad Gita
o 4.5 Later life
· 5 Early historical references
· 6 Early worship
· 7 Bhakti tradition
o 7.1 Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement
o 7.2 In the West
· 8 In the performing arts
· 9 In other religions
· 10 Krishnology
· 11 See also
· 12 Footnotes
· 13 References
· 14 External links
[edit] Etymology and names


Krishna as Jaganatha in a typical Oriya style, shown at the far right, with sister Subhadra in the center and brother Balarama on the left.
Main article: List of titles and names of Krishna
The Sanskrit word kṛṣṇa has the literal meaning of "black", "dark" or "dark-blue",[16] and is used as a name to describe someone with dark skin. Krishna is often depicted in murtis (images) as black, and is generally shown in paintings with blue skin.
Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Govinda, "finder of cows", or Gopala, "protector of cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Vraja.[17][18] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha (lit. "lord of the Universe")[19] in eastern India.
Some Hindu traditions often ascribe varying interpretations and powers to the names. The Mahabharata's Udyoga-parva (Mbh 5.71.4) divides kṛṣṇa into elements kṛṣ and ṇa, kṛṣ (a verbal root meaning "to plough, drag") being taken as expressing bhū "being; earth" and ṇa being taken as expressing nirvṛti "bliss". In the Brahmasambandha mantra of the Vallabha sampradaya, the syllables of the name Krishna are assigned the power to destroy sin relating to material, self and divine causes.[20] Mahabharata verse 5.71.4 is also quoted in Chaitanya Charitamrita and Prabhupada in his commentary, translates the bhū as "attractive existence", thus Krishna is also interpreted as meaning "all-attractive one".[21][22]
[edit] Iconography


Krishna with Gopis - Painting from Smithsonian Institution
Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin colour may be depicted as black or dark particularly in murtis, in other images especially modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with blue skin. He often wears a yellow silk dhoti and peacock feather headgear. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristic relaxed pose, playing the flute.[23][24] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other and raises a flute to his lips, accompanied by cows, emphasising his position as the divine herdsman -Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids).
The scene on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, notably where he addresses Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject. Here, he is shown as a man, often shown with typical god-like characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer.
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures;[25] his brother Balabhadra (also known as Balarama) and sister Subhadra or with his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama. Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna.[26] This is also a feature of Rudra Sampradaya[27] and the school of Nimbarka,[28] as well as that of Swaminarayan faith. Caitanyaites celebrate one of the self manifested deities called Radharamana, who is viewed as a form of Radha Krishna.[29] Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (bāla kṛṣṇa, the child Krishna) crawling on his hands and knees or dancing with butter in his hand.[30][31]
Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Orissa, Vithoba of Maharashtra[32] and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.
[edit] Literary sources
See also: Krishna in Mahābhārata


Yashoda bathing the child Krishna. (Western Indian illustrated Bhagavata Purana Manuscript)
The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahābhārata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[33] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
Virtually every one of the later Puranas tells Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Gaudiya Vaishnava schools.[34] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.
Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around the 5th century BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[35]Satha-patha-brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[36] In early texts, such as Rig Veda, there is no obvious references to Krishna, however some, like Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[37][35]
[edit] Life
This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India, mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.
[edit] Birth
Traditional belief based on scriptural details and astrological calculations gives the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[38] as either 18th or 21st July 3228 BCE.[39]
Krishna belonged to the royal family of Mathura, and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva. Mathura was the capital of the Yadavas (also called the Surasenas), to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged to. The king Kamsa, Devaki's brother, had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth son, he had locked the couple into a prison cell. After killing the first six children, and Devaki's apparent miscarriage of the seventh, Krishna took birth. It was believed that Krishna was born without a sexual union.[38] Since Vasudeva believed Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda and Nanda in Gokul. Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna).[40]
[edit] Childhood and youth


Krishna holding Govardhan hill. From the Smithsonian Institution collections.
Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell of his mischievious pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief), his foiling of attempts on his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana. Krishna is said to have killed the demons like Putana, sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kaliya, who poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cow-herders. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kaliya. Krishna is believed to have lifted the Govardhan hill and defeated Indra - the kings of the gods and rain -to protect native people of Vrindavana from prosecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan.[41][42] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[43]
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[44]
[edit] The prince
On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his uncle Kamsa. He re-installed Kamsa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[45] In this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[46]
Krishna married Rukmini, the princess of Vidarbha, by abducting her from her wedding. According to some texts, Krishna had 16,108 wives,[47][48] of which eight were chief - including Rukmini, Satyabhama and Jambavati.[49] Krishna also married 16,100 maidens who were being held in captivity by demon Narakasura, to save their honor. Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to strict social custom of the time all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the control of Narakasura, however Krishna decided to marry them to reinstate their status in the society.[50] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are believed to be forms of the goddess Lakshmi - consort of Vishnu.
[edit] The Kurukshetra war and the Bhagavad Gita
Main articles: Kurukshetra war and Bhagavad Gita


Krishna reveals his Vishvarupa form to Arjuna during their discourse of the Bhagavad Gita.
Krishna was a cousin to the Pandavas and Kauravas - the two parties in the Kurukshetra war (the Mahabharata war). Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides to choose between having either his army or simply himself, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, chief of the Kauravas, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna thus acted as Arjuna's charioteer. The Bhagavad Gita is the advice given to Arjuna by Krishna on the battlefield just prior to the start of the fighting.[51]
[edit] Later life
Following the war Krishna lived at Dwaraka for thirty-six years. Then at a festival, a fight broke out between the Yadavas who exterminated each other. His elder brother Balarama then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and sat under a tree in meditation. A hunter mistook his partly visible left foot for a deer and shot an arrow wounding him mortally.[52] According to the Mahābhārata, Krishna's death was caused by a curse by Gandhari. Her bitter anger after witnessing the death of her sons caused her to utter this curse, because she believed that Krishna did not do enough to stop the war when he had the full capability to do so. Upon learning of the curse, Krishna smiled and accepted it, stating that his duty was to fight for, and protect, the righteous people, not to prevent the war.
According to Puranic sources[53], Krishna's death marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[54]
[edit] Early historical references
One of the earliest recorded instances of a Krishna who could potentially be identified with the deity can be found in the Chandogya Upanishad, where he is mentioned as the son of Devaki, and to whom Ghora Angirasa was a teacher.[55][56] The Upansihads, namely Nārāyaṇātharvaśirsa and Ātmabodha, specifically regard Krishna as a god and associate him with Vishnu.[55]
References to Vāsudeva also occur in early Sanskrit literature. Taittiriya Aranyaka (X,i,6) identifies him with Narayana and Vishnu. Panini, ca. 4th century BCE, in his Ashtadhyayi explains the word "Vāsudevaka" as a Bhakta (devotee) of Vāsudeva.[35] This, along with the mention of Arjuna in the same context, indicates that the Vāsudeva here is Krishna.[57] At some stage during the Vedic period, Vasudeva and Krishna became one deity, and by the time of composition of the redaction of Mahabharata that survives till today, Krishna (Vasudeva) was generally acknowledged as an avatar of Vishnu and often as the Supreme God.[55]
In the 4th century BCE, Megasthenes the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya says that the Sourasenoi (Surasena), who lived in the region of Mathura worshipped Herakles. This Herakles is usually identified with Krishna [58] due to the regions mentioned by Megasthenes as well as similarities between some of the herioc acts of the two. The Greco-Bactrian ruler Agathocles issued coins bearing the images of Krishna and Balarama in around 180-165 BCE.[58]


The first inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE after his conversion to Bhagavata Monotheism.
At Ghosundi, near the town of Udaipur, is an inscription by a devotee mentioning Vasudeva and Narayana engraved around 150 BCE.[58] In the 1st century BCE, Heliodorus from Greece erected the Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar near Bhilsa[58] with the inscription: This Garuda-column of Vasudeva the god of gods was erected here by Heliodorus, a worshipper of the Lord Bhagavata, the son of Diya Greek Dion and an inhabitant of Taxila, who came as ambassador of the Greeks from the Great King Amtalikita [Greek Antialcidas] to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra the saviour, who was flourishing in the fourteenth year of his reign [...] three immortal steps [...] when practiced, lead to heaven—self-control, charity, and diligence.
Another 1st century BCE inscription from Mathura records the building of a part of a sanctuary to Vasudeva by the great satrap Sodasa.
The renowned grammar scholar Patanjali, who wrote his commentary on Panini's grammar rules around 150 BCE (known as the Mahabhashya), quotes a verse: May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase! Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of Janardana with himself as fourth (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[59]
Also in the 1st century BCE, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[60] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum. [61][62] Many inscriptions and references to worship of Krishna can be found from the early centuries of the Common Era.
[edit] Early worship
The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism. [35][63] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[64][65] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and Cult of Gopala, that along with Cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[66][67] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[64] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva, he is belonged to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme Being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[64] In many sources outside of the cult, devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka.[68] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatara.[69]
[edit] Bhakti tradition
Main articles: Bhakti and Krishnaism
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[9][70]
Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[10]
The Bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries CE. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[71] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is perhaps the most well know of the oldest works in this genre.[72][73] [74] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.
[edit] Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement


Gita Govinda by Jayadeva.
The movement spread rapidly from northern India into the south, with the Sanskrit poem Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (12th century CE) becoming a landmark of devotional, Krishna-based literature. It elaborated a part of the Krishna legend - his love for one particular gopi, called Radha, a minor character in Bhagavata Purana but a major one in other texts like Brahma Vaivarta Purana. By the influence of Gita Govinda, Radha became inseparable from devotion to Krishna.[5]
While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Mirabai and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.
These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century CE, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century CE), Vallabhacharya (15th century CE) and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (16th century CE) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme god, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba[32], a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[5] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[70]
[edit] In the West


Krishna (left) with the flute with gopi-consort Radha, Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford, England
Since 1966, the Krishna bhakti movement has also spread outside India.[75] This is largely due to the evangelistic Hare Krishna movement, the largest part of which is the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).[76] The movement was founded by Prabhupada, who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world.[77]
[edit] In the performing arts
While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[78] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahābhārata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[79]
From the 10th century AD, with the growing Bhakti movement, Krishna became a favourite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.


Kathakali performer as Krishna.
The classical dances of India, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavana shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[80] The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna.
Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.
Narayana Tirtha's (17th century CE) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century CE) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts.
Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.
[edit] In other religions


"Celebration of Spring by Krishna and Radha," 18th Century miniature; in the Guimet Museum, Paris
Jainism
The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist or non-violent. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it. The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[81]
In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. The Vasudeva then has to descend to hell as punishment for this violent act. Having undergone the punishment he is then reborn as a Tirthankara.[82][83]
Buddhism
The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[84] in the Ghatapandita Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[85] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his younger brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[86]
As depicted in the Mahābhārata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[87]
Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as one of the lives of Sariputra, one of Buddha's foremost disciples and the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[88] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[85]
Bahá'í Faith
Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God," or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[89]
Ahmadiyya Islam
Members of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad:
Let it be clear that Lord Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the rishis and avatars of the Hindus. He was an avatar (i.e. a prophet) of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Arya from sin and was in fact the prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[90]
Other
Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, Biblical and even historical figures.[91] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard him as one of the Masters, a spiritual teacher for humanity.[92][93] Krishna was canonized by Aleister Crowley and is recognized as a saint in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis.[94][95]
[edit] Krishnology
Main article: Krishnology
Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries.[4] In recent decades this study called Krishnology, has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others
Que: How can such a desire arise amidst the non-duality in the Supreme Heaven? True, this must not happen in Param Dham.
The virtue of oneness (advaita) in Param Dham is centered around the Lord Shri Raj Ji. The blessings of His sight, or Najar, is the food for the Brahmn Srishti souls and Akshar Brahmn. The continuity of the Lord’s Love (Ishak) is always maintained through the blessings of His sight. To show the power of His Love and His supremacy, the Lord removed His eyesight from the Souls. At this time, the Souls could see Akshar Brahmn for the first time and Akshar Brahmn could also see the Souls for the first time. As a results, Akshar Brahmn also expressed his desire to experience the Blissful Sports of his Lord. This is why the Souls and Akshar Brahmn asked for two different things.
Que: Why couldn’t the Lord show the power of His Divine Love, or Ishak, in Param Dham?
The answer to this question is very simple. The Lord commanded Akshar Brahmn to create the universe of Kaalmaya for two reasons. First, to satisfy the desire of the Souls and Akshar Brahmn, and second, to decide whose Ishak or Love is greater—the Soul’s or the Lord’s. The Lord had to do so, because of the prevalence of Oneness in Param Dham and also in Akshar Brahmn’s Yogmaya. The decision regarding superior or inferior cannot be made in Param Dham. Such an experience can be possible only in the domain where there is a sense of separation--a sense of ‘you-and-me,’ or ‘Dvaita’ (as the scriptures call it).

The Supreme Lord and His Souls (Brahmn Srishti) Descends in Brij and Gokul in the First Universe of Kaalmaya

Now, as we discussed above, to satisfy the desire of Souls, the Lord prepares the stage by instructing Akshar Brahmn. The universe was created for a very special Cause. Many years passed by. The time arrived for the descent of the Lord and His Souls in this world. The four-armed form of Lord Vishnu appeared before Vasudev and Devki in the jail of Kansa and reminded them of the facts about his past commitment to them. Then he informed them that he will soon take birth as their son. After that, Lord Vishnu took birth in Mathura, at midnight, in the jail of Kansa, as previously promised to Vasudev and Devki. At the time of birth, the constellation Rohini appeared (with Vrikh Raasi). Accordingly, the gods and goddesses showered flowers from heaven on this occasion and very properly greeted Lord Vishnu with these words:
"Om namo bhagvatey vaasudevaay."
According to Hindu culture, anyone born during the aforementioned time period, is named either with the first letter ‘O’ or ‘Va.’
After that, as previously instructed by Lord Vishnu, Vasudev carried the newborn child to Gokul at Nand-Yashoda's house. In the morning, descended upon him, the soul of Akshar Brahmn and the Lord’s exalted power, or Aavesh.
Mool surat akshar ki jeh, Jin chahya dekhun prem sneha |
So surat dhani ko ley aavesh, Nand ghar kiyo pravesh ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/29).
In other words, Akshar Brahmn’s soul, who had demanded to experience the blissful sports of Param Dham, entered the house of Nand-Yashoda in Gokul with the divine power, or Josh, of Supreme Lord impregnated within.
The Souls of Param Dham, including Consort Shyama, descended in the person of Gopies, or the milkmaids, in Brij and Gokul. When the Soul of Shyama Ji descended upon the twelve-year old daughter of Vrikhbhan Ji, Shyama Ji got the name Radha. Like wise, all other Souls got the names of the milkmaids. As soon as the Souls descended in Brij and Gokul, they became impatient to meet their Lord, from whom they had just separated. Expressing these feelings of the souls, the holy Kuljam Swaroop says:

Jyon nind mein dekhiye supan, yon upjeh ham brij vadhu jan |
Upjat hi mana aasha ghani, ham kab milsi aapne dhani ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/29).
Gargacharya (Gargmuni), the priest of the Yadu dynasty and the great astrologer, named the child as Krishna. By the time the child was brought to Nand-Yashoda’s house, the constellation of Rohini was changed to Mrigshir and Vrikh Raasi was changed to Mithun. Everyone learned about the child’s birth in the constellation of Mrigshir and in Mithun Raasi. According to Hindu culture, anyone born during the above said period, is named with the first letter ‘Ka.’ This way, the Lord got the name Krishna in the sports of Brij and Raas. Today, the Hindu world celebrates the birthday of Lord Krishna as ‘Janam-Astmi.’ But, they do not understand this secret in absence of the Tartam knowledge.
Supreme Lord Shows the Delusive Maya to the Souls in Brij
Brij Lila continued for 11 years without any separation or pain. As time passed, the Souls (Gopies) began experiencing a greater effect of maya. They could not devote as much time to play with Krishna anymore. Taking this opportunity, Krishna decided to show them the pain of separation. Lost in the illusion of maya, the Gopies even spoke inappropriate words to Krishna. They did not talk with, or see each other for 52 days. This way, the souls experienced a glimpse of pain.
Lord Supreme Ascends in the Cosmos of Yogmaya for the Sports of Maha Raas



When the pain of separation in Brij reached a climax, the Lord left this mundane world and went into the divine plane of Yogmaya.
Eah baat dhani chit saun lyaye, Aadhi nind dai udai |
Agyare varas aur bavan din, ta pichhey pohunche Brindavan ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/34).
Eah swaroop ne eah Vrindavan, eah Jamuna trat saar |
Ghar thi teet, Brahmand thi algo, teh Tartamey kidho nirdhar ||
(KS, Raas: 10/36)
He (in the person of Krishna) played His divine flute to call His souls. The world underwent dissolution. The souls ascended to the divine plane of Keval Brahmn and prepared for the Raas Lila in Nitya Brindavan. A seeker soul may enjoy all the sports of Raas, which are vividly described in the Holy Kuljam Swaroop in the book of ‘Raas.’ The seeker soul should understand the distinction among the four categories of Raas discussed later, in this chapter.
Supreme Lord Withdraws His Powers from the Sports of Maha Raas. The’s Demand Continued.
Submerged in the joy of Raas, both the souls and the Akshar Brahmn forgot their originality. To make Akshar Brahmn aware of the fact that He was enjoying Param Dham's sports of bliss, the Supreme Lord withdrew His power (or aavesh) from the person of Krishna.
Pher mool sarupen dekhya tit, eah dou magan hueh khelat |
Jab josh liya kheinch kar, tab chit chaunk bhayee akshar ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/41)
This caused Akshar Brahmn to wake up in His original form and the Souls to wake up in their Supreme Meeting Place, called Mool Milava. Upon waking up in their Original Abode, the Souls claimed that they still had not experienced the Akshar Brahmn's maya to their full satisfaction in Brij and Raas.
Vraj raas lila dou mahen, dukh taamasiyon dekhya nahen | (KS, Pra.Hi: 37/50)
When the Soul’s demand continued, Shri Raj Ji said these last words: "Alasto-Be-Rub-Kum." In other words, "Oh my dear souls, please don’t ever forget that I am your one and only one Lord. Always remember this in the spectacle of maya."
Responding to these words of our Lord, the souls reassured Him with one voice, "valey," which means "For sure, O our Lord! We will never ever forget our eternal relationship with you." After this, the Lord commanded Akshar Brahmn to initiate the present universe of Kalmaya.
The Present Universe of Kalmaya is Initiated
The Supreme Lord commanded Akshar Brahmn to resume the spectacle from the point where it was left. This second universe of Kalmaya is totally created with Akshar Brahmn’s soul power.
Kaalmaya ko eah jo ind, upjyo aur janey soi brahmand |
Eah tisra ind naya bhaya jo aab, akshar ki surat ka sab ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/50)
When the Ved Rucha Gopies, in the domain of Avyakrit Brahmn, saw the Pratibimb Raas Lila (reflection of the Maha Raas), they demanded to experience and play similar sports of Raas from their Gauloki Lord. The Gauloki Lord agreed to satisfy their request and told them that when he will go to Mrityu Loka (this world), he will be able to replay the similar sports of Raas. Accordingly, to fulfill the desire of the Ved Rucha Gopies, the Gauloki power descended in the person of Krishna. Then, Krishna duplicated the Raas Lila, as promised, for seven days.
Din agyare gvalo bhesh, tin par nahin dhani ko aavesh |
Saat din gokul mein rahe, char din mathura ke kahe ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/58)
From Gokul, Krishna went to Mathura to free Vasudev and Devki, promising Radha, the Gopies, and Nand Baba of his return. However, he did not do so. Upon freeing Vasudev and Devki, he went to the river Yamuna for a bath and wore a new kingly dress. Then he sent his original dress of Brij and Gokul to Radha through Vasudev as a token of his memory. At this point, the power of Gaulok returned to its original abode in Yogmaya. As a result, in the person of Krishna, there remained only the power of the Vaikunth Nath Lord Vishnu. This becomes clear from the incident when Jarasandha attacked Krishna while he was on his way to Dwarika. Krishna (Lord Vishnu) had to summon back all his powers (with Sankha, chakra, gada and padma) from Vaikunth to defeat Jarasandh. After this, Vishnu-Krishna settled in the City of Dwarika.
Aaye Jarasandh Mathura gheri sahi, tab Shri Krishnaji ko ati chinta bhayee |
Yon yaad karte aaya vichar, tab Krishna Vishnu mai bhaye nirdhaar ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 37/61).
Krishna (Vishnu) kidnaps Rukmani, the incarnation of Laxmi Ji, and married her due to their original relationship. The same Vishnu-Krishna, the main character of the Mahabharata, preached the Holy Gita to Arjuna.
The World is Unaware of the Three Distinct Divine Powers That Worked Within Krishna
From the above discussion based on the Holy Kuljam Swaroop and other scriptures such as Samhitas, we can understand the three different spiritual/divine powers that worked with the name 'Krishna', on four different occasions. In absence of the Tartam knowledge, the connection of Lord Vishnu and Lord Krishna remained obscured to the world. Many present-day Gurus and religious preachers, claiming to have complete understanding about Krishna Tatwa, have failed to explain this. Many others are just fearful to accept the newly revealed truth, which is enlightened by Buddha Nish-kalanka Avatar. Only the fortunate souls get to know this distinction through Lord Pran Nath’s Divine Grace. These are:

· First, the Supreme Lord’s power (Aavesh), accompanied by Akshar Brahmn's soul worked for 11 years and 52 days in the sports of Brij in the previous universe of Kaalmaya.
· Second, the Gauloki power worked in Krishna for seven days in Gokul and 4 days in Mathura, and
· Third, only the power of Lord Vishnu worked in the sports of Dwarika Puri.
At this stage, it would be appropriate for a seeker to understand the topic of ‘Incarnations’ (Avatars) in detail. After studying the following discussion on Avatar, the seeker will be better able to understand the three distinct powers that worked through Lord Krishna.
Avatars
ccording to Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, the term Avatar means God’s coming down to earth in any lifeform (Incarnation) to protect good, to annihilate the wicked, and to reestablish righteousness–‘Dharma.’ Hindus generally connect the term ‘Avatar’ with Lord Vishnu. Out of the total of 24 Avatars, scriptures are only clear about 21 Avatars. There are a number of speculations regarding the remaining Avatars.
It is important for a seeker soul to clearly understand about the twenty-one Avatars. And, even more important is to understand the secret of the 22nd, 23rd and the 24th Avatar. There is a reason for special emphasis on these three Avatars. The three different powers from different spiritual worlds worked among these three Avatars. And, the world remained completely ignorant about it in absence of the Tartam Knowledge. Let’s try to understand this.
Among the most commonly known seven Avatars of Lord Vishnu are: Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narasimha (man-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Parasuram (warrior with an axe) and Lord Rama (who came in Treta Yug).
The other fourteen Avatars of Lord Vishnu are : Sanakadik, Sage Narada (exponent of Bhakti and Tantras), Saints Nara and Narayana, Sage Kapil (the founder of Samkhya system), Dattatreya, Yajna, Rishabhdev (the founder of Jainism), King Prithu, Dhanvantari (the founder of Ayurveda), Bal Ram (as Lord Krishna’s brother), Sage Veda Vyasa (the author of Maha Bharata and Srimad Bhagvatam Puran), Hari and Mohini or Hansa (the enchantress who deprived the demons of the divine elixir), and Hayagriva (the horse-headed who rescued the Vedas from the demons).
Speculations Regarding the Buddha and Kalki Avatars:
Scriptures have identified Rama’s Avatar with 12 Kala of Lord Vishnu, and Lord Krishna’s Avatar with all the 16 kala of Lord Vishnu. Lord’s Krishna’s Avatar is regarded as 22nd and Buddha (Gautama) is speculated to be the 23rd. Scriptures identify the last 24th Avatar as the ‘Kalki’ Avatar that will come at the end of this Kaliyug. And, in ignorance, the world is still eagerly waiting for this coming.
No doubt, scriptures have named the last three Avatars as Krishna, Buddha and Kalki; however, they are not very clearly defined. For example, the interpreters of Srimad Bhagvatam literally try to identify Gautama Buddha as the ‘Buddha Avatar.’ But, this is not convincing because even Suk Vyas Ji, the author of Bhagvatam, was not even sure about the Buddha Avatar. How can then he be clear about the Kalki Avatar? How can the interpreters of Srimad Bhagvatam be so sure about the Buddha and Kalki Avatar, when Suk Vyas Ji was not so sure about it? Pran Nath Ji points this fact very clearly in the Holy Kuljam Swaroop.

Sukey avatar sab kahey, par budh mein rahya urzaaye |
Eah bhi sidha na kahe sakya, toh kyon ean kahi jaaye ||
(KS, Kal. Hin: 19/2)
Again, the wisdom offered by Gautama Buddha did not meet the qualification of ‘Para Vidya’ or ‘Jagrit Buddhi’ as discussed earlier. It could not unify all the world wisdoms like Nijanand Swami did.
In Bhagvatam, it says, "After that Lord Vishnu himself will appear in the form of Buddha. Through his logical arguments, he will take in his grip, all those unauthorized people engaged in performing ‘Yajna.’ And, in the end period of the Kaliyug, he will re-appear as the Kalki Avatar. At this time, he will kill all the ‘Shudra’ kings." This discussion regarding the Buddha and the Kalki Avatar is not definitive. It sends mixed signals requiring the interpreters to use their own judgement.
The Holy Kuljam Reveals the Ultimate Secret of All Avatars
The world failed to understand the secret of the 22nd, 23rd and the 24th Avatar without the wisdom of Para Shakti. Now that all the scriptural facts are put together by the Buddha Nish-kalanka Avatar himself, we are able to explain it here.
Accordingly, the four-armed form of Lord Vishnu who appeared before Vasudev and Devki in the jail of Kansa, and reminded them the facts about His past commitment, should be considered as the 22nd Avatar.
The sports of Gauloki power should not be counted as the sports of Lord Vishnu: After the appearance of Lord Vishnu in Kansa’s jail, Vasudev carried Krishna to Nand Baba=s house in Gokul. Pran Nath Ji says, "At this time, Krishna was not just Lord Vishnu, but was charged with the Gauloki powers, as can be confirmed from Shrimad Bhagvatam."
Vasudev Gokul ley chale, taaye na kahiye Avatar || ........(KS, Pragat)
‘Avatars’ can be counted only of Lord Vishnu, not of any other powers from the higher spiritual domains. Consider an example of Mr. X who becomes the Prime Minister of a country. In the next election, he loses, and another Prime Minister takes charge of the office. Mr.X is still known by his original name, ‘Mr.X,’ but he is now without the powers of a Prime Minister. Krishna also experienced similar transfers of spiritual powers from time-to-time, and this is one of them. Therefore, Krishna with Gauloki powers is not regarded as ‘Avatar.’
Lord Krishna with Gauloki powers played the sports in Gokul and Mathura for eleven days. During the first seven days, he played in Gokul. During the last four days in Mathura, Krishna established peace by destroying all evil powers. Now he leaves the City of Mathura and goes to the River Yamuna. At this time, a transfer of spiritual powers takes place. As a result, his following sports will be considered as the sports of the 23rd Avatar.
The 23rd Avatar: As soon as he took bath in the River Yamuna, and wore the kingly dress, the sports of Lord Vishnu’s 23rd Avatar began. Now, the powers of the divine Gaulok returned to the eternal Gaulok in Akshar Brahmn’s Yogmaya. Only the powers of Lord Vishnu in the person of Krishna prevailed at this time. Clarifying this Pran Nath Ji says:
Jab raaj baghe ko kiyo singaar, tab bal parakram na rahyo lagaar |
Aye jarasandh mathura gheri sahi, tab sri krishnaji ko ati chinta bhayi |
Yon yaad karte aaya vichhar, tab krishna vishnu mai bhaye nirdhar ||
(KS, Pra.Hi: 54-55)
This is the 23rd Avatar of Lord Vishnu who won a war against Jarasindh by calling in his charriot and four weapons from Vaikuntha, killed Shishupaal, preached Shrimad Bhagvad Gita to Arjuna, and ruled over the City of Dwarika for 112 years. It should be noted here that though the name of the body remained ‘Krishna,’ the actual power involved in different sports was never the same.
Regarding the 24th Avatar: According to Kuljam Swaroop, the descent of the Supreme Lord’s spotless wisdom meets all the qualifications of the work to be done by the last Kalki Avatar. Therefore, there is no need for any more Avatars of Lord Vishnu. What’s the need for Lord Vishnu to come again (specifically, in this creation) when the Supreme Lord Himself has come as Buddha Nish-kalanka Avatar? What good is the light of innumerable Avatars who are like fireflies? The sun-like Buddha Nish-kalanka has already arisen now with unlimited light.
Avatar ya budh ke pichhey, aab dusra kyon hoi |
Vikar kadhey vishva key, ab kiye Avatar se hoi ||
Avatar se uttam hueh, tahan Avatar ka kya kam |
Tit agiye Avatar mein, kya rahya ujas ||
Samajiyo tum ya vidh, Avatar na hoi ann || (KS, Kal.Hi: 37-40)
Of course, He cannot be regarded as Avatar; however, we have to count His supreme divine work as that what was supposed to be done by the 24th Avatar. Confirming this, the Kuljam Swaroop says this:
Sakshat swaroop Sri Indrawati, tartam ko Avatar | (KS, Kalas: 23/56)
Here, the soul of Indrawati (who was later known as Pran Nath Ji), has been regarded as the incarnation of Tartam, the Holy Spirit, in person. Here, Tartam, denoting the Supreme Spiritual Light and Luster, is the Supreme Lord’s incarnation in the form of divine words called Kuljam Swaroop. One should understand the distinction between Dev Chandra Ji, who is regarded as Buddha Avatar, and Mahamati, who is regarded as Buddha Nish-kalanka Avatar. More discussion on this topic will appear later in the book.
In this chapter we learned about the cause of all causes, the secret sports of Lord Krishna, and clarification regarding Avatars. To understand the Soul’s further journey clearly, we must first learn the secret of Raas Lila. By understanding this secret, one can visualize the connection between Param Dham, Raas Lila, and the present world. This is what we will discuss now.
The Secret of Raas Lila: The BlissfulDivine Sports

What is the meaning of Raas? Is there more than one category of Raas? How are they related? Raas means the blissful divine sports of the Lord with His souls. Krishna, Radha, and Gopies are the three main characters of Raas Lila. As we discussed earlier, ‘Ishak Rabad’ (the Talk of Divine Love between Supreme Lord and His souls) is the root cause of the original sports of Maha Raas. One can learn about three other hierarchial categories of Raas Lila, all of which are direct or an indirect outcome of the Maha Raas Lila. They all are like mirror images of one original. The only difference is that the players in each of them represent different hierarchial spiritual origins. It’s important for a seeker soul to have this concept clear in order for her to rise to the highest spiritual world, the Param Dham, in the state of supreme bliss - Nijanand.
Many great devotees of Lord Krishna, and the three godheads - Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh sought to experience these blissful divine sports in the universe of Yogmaya. No scripture of the world, other than Shrimad Bhagvatam, has been able to explain a small drop of the Raas Lila. The Raas Lila described in Shrimad Bhagvatam is called Vyavhariki Raas, which was played between Gauloki Lord and Ved Ruchas.
The four categories of Raas
The four categories of Raas are explained as follows:
· Vastavik Raas Lila: Also known as Maha Raas. Played in the Yogmaya, specifically in the intellectual (Buddhi) domain of Akshar Brahmn - Keval Brahmn. These were the players in this Raas Lila: Aksharateet Shri Raj Ji (with Akshar’s soul) as Krishna, Shyama Ji (with Akshar’s soul) as Radha and Brahmn Srishti Souls (with the soul of Akshar Brahmn) as Gopies.
· Pratibhasiki Raas Lila: After Maha Raas, when Brahmn Srishti souls requested Shri Rajji to take them to the abode where there is no separation at all, Rajji, Shyama Ji and Brahmn Srishti souls returned to Param Dham. Nevertheless, the soul of Akshar Brahmn playing with them in the sports of Maha Raas, remembered it and this was permanently stored in the domain of Akshar Brahmn’s Chit--Sablik Brahmn.
· Pratibimb Raas Lila: The Maha Raas Lila’s reflection also falls upon the domain of mind of Akshar Brahmn--the Avyakrit Brahmn.
This way, Akshar Brahmn’s three inner senses--mind (manas), faculties of cognition (chit), and intellect (buddhi)--are all experiencing the blissful sports of Maha Raas.
· Vyavahariki Raas Lila: When the Ved Ruchas in the domain of Avyakrit Brahmn saw the Pratibimb Raas Lila (reflection of the Maha Raas Lila), they demanded to experience and play similar sports of Raas from their Gauloki Lord. Gauloki Lord agreed to satisfy their request and told them that when he will go to Mrityu Loka (this world), he will be able to replay the similar sports of Raas.
How is the Raas Lila linked to the present world?
In the present universe in which we live today, the Gauloki Lord played the role of Krishna and Ved Ruchas played the role of Gopies. This way, the Vyavhariki Raas Lila was accomplished in the Brindavan (near Delhi, India) of this world. It should be noted here that as opposed to the previous Rass Lilas, this Vyavahariki Raas Lila is finished and is not eternal.
It may be recalled here that when the Supreme Lord Shri Raj Ji, Shyama Ji, and Souls left Brij for the Maha Raas Lila in Yogmaya, the universe underwent dissolution (Pralaya). This present universe is the new and the exact copy of the previous one, and has been put into continuation from where it was ended. After this Vyavhariki Raas Lila, Krishna left Gokul Brindavan for Mathura. As a result, Ved Ruchas experienced a great pain in separation. Uddhav, a devotee of Krishna, tried to preach his wisdom to these Ved Ruchas, which they rejected upfront. Because, they knew that the Gauloki Lord had already departed from the person of Krishna. This Gauloki power had left for its original abode, Gaulok. They knew that only the powers of Lord Vishnu had remained in the person of Krishna.
Again, one should take a note here that the Raas Lila, which Shrimad Bhagvatam talks about, is the Vyavahariki Raas played between Gauloki Lord and Ved Ruchas. This complete secret of the Supreme Lord’s Raas Lila could not have been understood without Aksharateet Supreme Lord’s divine grace.
Today, more than five thousand years have passed since the Vyavahariki Raas Lila. After that, many great seers and prophets descended on this earth. They brought different messages through their respective scriptures to awaken the Brahmn Srishti Souls. Among non-Hindus, prophets such as Moses, David, Isha and Muhammad came. Scriptures such as Torah, Bible and Koran descended through them. Later, Saint Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev came in India with a great deal of wisdom. This way, the worldly stage was fully prepared with all possible testimonies to awaken the Brahmn Srishti Souls.
In the next chapter, we will talk about the descent of the Souls, Shyama Ji and the Supreme Lord in this particular universe of Kaalmaya. Now our discussion will focus slightly more on the historcal aspect of Nijanand Sampradaya. With the historical reinforcement, we will then focus again on the philosophical aspect of the Divine Wisdom.


opular Names of Lord Krishna with their Meanings
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Krishna has been given many names and titles by his devotees.
· Achala - The still one
· Achyuta - Infallible
· Baanke Bihari - Charming player
· Bihari - One who plays
· Brajesh - Lord of Braja
· Chakradhari - the bearer of a discus (chakra)
· Damodara (Daamodarah) - the Lord when He was tied with a cord (daama) round His waist (udara)
· Dinabandu - Friend of the afflicted
· Dînânâth - Refuge of destitutes
· Dwarakadish - Lord of Dwaraka
· Dwarakanath - Lord of Dwaraka
· Ghanshyam - Dark rain cloud complexioned one
· Giridhari - he who lifted a hill (Govardhana hill)
· Gopala - cowherd; protector of cows
· Gopinath - Lord of the gopis, or cowherd women.
· Govinda - protector of cows; also connected with Govardhana Hill; see also other meanings.
· Guruvayoorappan - Lord of the temple Guruvayoor, constructed by the Guru of Devas Brihaspati and Vayu .
· Hari - one who takes away [sins, or who wards off samsara, the cycle of birth and death];[1] the yellow one (the colour of the sun); Hare Krishna is the vocative, viz. "o golden one! o dark-blue one"; see other meanings.
· Ishvara - god
· Hrshikesha - Master of the senses
· Jagannatha - lord of all places (see also Juggernaut).
· Janardhana - One Who Bestows Boons On One And All
· Kaladev - the black deity
· Kanha
· Keshava – long haired, beautiful haired; see also other meanings.
· Madhava - bringer of springtime; see other meanings
· Madhusudanah - killer of demon Madhu
· Mukhilan- The one with the complexion similar to the rain clouds
· Mukunda- he who gives you Mukti
· Nanda Gopal
· Nanda Lal - Beloved of Nanda
· Panduranga
· Parambrahman the highest Brahman
· Parameshvara the highest Ishvara, the highest god
· Partha sarathy - charioteer, a reference to his role with regard to Arjuna in the great battle
· Patitapavana - Purifier of the fallen
· Radha Vallabha - lover of Radha
· Ranchodrai - When he refused to fight the war and fled to Dwarka for the sake of peace. Dakor, Gujarat has a popular temple of Ranchodraiji. Ran - Field, Chod - leave.
· Shyamasundara - the beautiful, dark one
· Vāsudeva, Krishna Vaasudeva - son of Vasudeva
· Yadunandan - Son of the Yadu dynasty
· Yogeshwara - the Lord of the Yogis
· Yashoda Nandan – child of Yashoda
[edit] 108 names and titles from the Gaudiya Vaishnavism tradition
1. Achala - Still Lord
2. Achyuta - Infallible Lord
3. Adbhutah - Wonderful God
4. Adidev - The Lord Of The Lords
5. Aditya - The Son Of Aditi
6. Ajanma - One Who Is Limitless And Endless
7. Ajaya - The Conqueror Of Life And Death
8. Akshara - Indestructible Lord
9. Amrit - Heavenly nectar or elixir
10. Anandsagar - Compassionate Lord
11. Ananta - The Endless Lord
12. Anantajit - Ever Victorious Lord
13. Anaya - One Who Has No Leader
14. Aniruddha - One Who Cannot Be Obstructed
15. Aparajeet - The Lord Who Cannot Be Defeated
16. Avyukta - One Who Is As Clear As Crystal
17. Balgopal - The Child Krishna, The All Attractive
18. Chaturbhuj - Four-Armed Lord
19. Danavendra - Granter Of Boons
20. Dayalu - Repository Of Compassion
21. Dayanidhi - The Compassionate Lord
22. Devadidev - The God Of The Gods
23. Devakinandan - Son Of Mother Devaki
24. Devesh - Lord Of The Lords
25. Dharmadhyaksha - The Lord OF Dharma
26. Dravin - The one who has no Enemies
27. Dwarkapati - Lord Of Dwarka
28. Gopal - One Who Plays With The Cowherds, The Gopas
29. Gopalpriya - Lover Of Cowherds
30. Govinda - One Who Pleases The Cows, The Land And The Entire Nature
31. Gyaneshwar - The Lord Of Knowledge
32. Hari - The Lord Of Nature
33. Hiranyagarbha - The All Powerful Creator
34. Hrishikesh - The Lord Of All Senses
35. Jagadguru - Preceptor Of The Universe
36. Jagadisha - Protector Of All
37. Jagannath - Lord Of The Universe
38. Janardhana - One Who Bestows Boons On One And All
39. Jayantah - Conqueror Of All Enemies
40. Jyotiraaditya - The Resplendence Of The Sun
41. Kamalnath - The Lord Of Goddess Lakshmi
42. Kamalnayan - The Lord With Lotus Shaped Eyes
43. Kamsantak - Slayer Of Kamsa
44. Kanjalochana - The Lotus-Eyed God
45. Keshava - One Who Has Long, Black Matted Locks
46. Krishna - Dark-Complexioned Lord
47. Lakshmikantam - The Lord Of Goddess Lakshmi
48. Lokadhyaksha - Lord Of All The Three Lokas (Worlds)
49. Madan - The Lord Of Love
50. Madhava - Knowledge Filled God
51. Madhusudan - Slayer Of Demon Madhu
52. Mahendra - Lord Of Indra
53. Manmohan - All Pleasing Lord
54. Manohar - Beautiful Lord
55. Mayur - The Lord Who Has A Peacock Feathered-Crest
56. Mohan - All Attractive God
57. Murali - The Flute Playing Lord
58. Murlidhar - One Who Holds The Flute
59. Murlimanohar - The Flute Playing God
60. Nandakumara - Son of Nanda
61. Nandgopala - The Son Of Nand
62. Narayana - The Refuge Of Everyone
63. Navaneethachora - makan (butter) chor
64. Niranjana - The Unblemished Lord
65. Nirguna - Without Any Properties
66. Padmahasta - One Who Has Hands Like Lotus
67. Padmanabha - The Lord Who Has A Lotus Shaped Navel
68. Parabrahmana - The Supreme Absolute Truth
69. Paramatma - Lord Of All Beings
70. Parampurush - Supreme Personality
71. Parthasarthi - Charioteer Of Partha - Arjuna
72. Prajapati - Lord Of All Creatures
73. Punyah - Supremely Pure
74. Purshottam - The Supreme Soul
75. Ravilochana - One Who Eye Is The Sun
76. Sahasraakash - Thousand-Eyed Lord
77. Sahasrajit - One Who Vanquishes Thousands
78. Sakshi - All Witnessing Lord
79. Sanatana - The Eternal Lord
80. Sarvajana - Omniscient Lord
81. Sarvapalaka - Protector Of All
82. Sarveshwar - Lord Of All Gods
83. Satyavachana - One Who Speaks Only The Truth
84. Satyavrata - The Truth Dedicated Lord
85. Shantah - Peaceful Lord
86. Shreshta - The Most Glorious Lord
87. Shrikanta - Beautiful Lord
88. Shyam - Dark-Complexioned Lord
89. Shyamsundara - Lord Of The Beautiful Evenings
90. Sudarshana - Handsome Lord
91. Sumedha - Intelligent Lord
92. Suresham - Lord Of All Demi-Gods
93. Swargapati - Lord Of Heavens
94. Trivikrama - Conqueror Of All The Three Worlds
95. Upendra - Brother Of Indra
96. Vaikunthanatha - Lord Of Vaikuntha, The Heavenly Abode
97. Vardhamaanah - The Formless Lord
98. Vasudev - All Prevailing Lord
99. Vishnu-All Prevailing Lord
100. Vishwadakshinah - Skilful And Efficient Lord
101. Vishwakarma - Creator Of The Universe
102. Vishwamurti - Of The Form Of The Entire Universe
103. Vishwarupa - One Who Displays The Universal Form
104. Vishwatma - Soul Of The Universe
105. Vrishaparvaa - Lord Of Dharma
106. Yadavendra - King Of The Yadav Clan
107. Yogi - The Supreme Master
108. Yoginampati - Lord Of The Yogis

The claim that "the word Krishna [...] means the all-attractive" current in ISKCON is due to Prabhupada's commentary on Bhagavata Purana (1.1.1) and (6.4.33) because according to Gaudiya philosophy the Lord is sometimes called guṇa-karma-nāma because He is named according to His transcendental activities. Thus, Krishna in this context means "all-attractive", because "His transcendental qualities make Him very attractive."[2] [3] [4] [5] Prabhupada bases this on his translation of the Chaitanya Charitamrita, where a mystical "etymology" of kṛṣṇa is given as
kṛṣir bhū-vācakaḥ śabdo / ṇaś ca nirvṛti-vācakaḥ
"kṛṣ expresses existence (bhū); ṇa expresses pleasure (nirvṛti)"
The translation of bhū given by Prabhupada is "attractive existence".[6]
[edit] Vishnu Ashtotharam
The below prayers can be told daily by offering flowers or Tulasi to Lord [Krishna]]. It contains 108 Names of Lord Krishna taken from Vishnu Sahasranama.
1. Om Vishnave Namah
2. Om Lakshmi Pathaye Namah
3. Om Krishnaya Namah
4. Om Vaikuntaaya Namah
5. Om Garuda Dhvajaya Namah
6. Om Parah Brahmane Namah
7. Om Jagannathaya Namah
8. Om Vaasudevaya Namah
9. Om Trivikramaya Namah
10. Om Dhydhyaanthakaaya Namah
11. Om Madhuribhave Namah
12. Om Dhaarshyavahaaya Namah
13. Om Sanaadhanaaya Namah
14. Om Narayanaya Namah
15. Om Padmanabhaya Namah
16. Om Hrishikeshaya Namah
17. Om Sudhapradhaya Namah
18. Om Haraye Namah
19. Om Pundarikakshaya Namah
20. Om Siddhidhikarthre Namah
21. Om Paraathparaya Namah
22. Om Vanamaline Namah
23. Om Yagnaroopaya Namah
24. Om Chakrapanye Namah
25. Om Gadhadhraya Namah
26. Om Upendraya Namah
27. Om Keshavaya Namah
28. Om Hamsaaya Namah
29. Om SamudraMadhanaya Namah
30. Om Haraye Namah
31. Om Govindaya Namah
32. Om Prahmajankaya Namah
33. Om KaitabasuraMardhanaya Namah
34. Om Sridharaya Namah
35. Om Kaamajakaaya Namah
36. Om Seshaya Namah
37. Om Chadhurbhujaya Namah
38. Om Paanchajanyadharaaya Namah
39. Om SriMathe Namah
40. Om Shaarangapanaye Namah
41. Om Janardhanaya Namah
42. Om Pitambharadharaya Namah
43. Om Devaya Namah
44. Om SuryaChandraVilochanaya Namah
45. Om MatsyaRoopaya Namah
46. Om Kurmathanave Namah
47. Om Krodharoopaya Namah
48. Om Nrukesarine Namah
49. Om Vaamanaaya Namah
50. Om Bhaargavaaya Namah
51. Om Raamaya Namah
52. Om Haline Namah
53. Om Kalkine Namah
54. Om Hayaananaaya Namah
55. Om Viswambaraya Namah
56. Om Simsumaaraya Namah
57. Om Srikharaaya Namah
58. Om Kapilaaya Namah
59. Om Dhruvaaya Namah
60. Om Dattatreyaya Namah
61. Om Achyutaya Namah
62. Om Anantaaya Namah
63. Om Mukundhaaya Namah
64. Om Dhidhivaamanaaya Namah
65. Om Dhanvantraye Namah
66. Om Srinivasaya Namah
67. Om Pradyumnaya Namah
68. Om Purushothamaya Namah
69. Om Srivathkausthubhadhraaya Namah
70. Om Muraradhaye Namah
71. Om Adhoshjaaya Namah
72. Om Rushabhaya Namah
73. Om MohanaroopaDharine Namah
74. Om Sangarshanaaya Namah
75. Om Prithave Namah
76. Om Sheerabdhisaayene Namah
77. Om Bhoodhathmane Namah
78. Om Anirudhaaya Namah
79. Om Bhakthavatsalaaya Namah
80. Om Naraaya Namah
81. Om GajendraVaradaaya Namah
82. Om Thridhamne Namah
83. Om Bhoothabhavanaaya Namah
84. Om Svetavaasdhavyaaya Namah
85. Om SuryamandalaMadhyakaaya Namah
86. Om SanakathiMunithyeyaaya Namah
87. Om Bhagavathe Namah
88. Om SankaraPriyaya Namah
89. Om Neelakanthaya Namah
90. Om Tharakaanthaaya Namah
91. Om Vedathmane Namah
92. Om Bhadhraayanaaya Namah
93. Om BhagirathiJanmaBhoomiPaadaPadmaaya Namah
94. Om Stham Prabhave Namah
95. Om Svabhave Namah
96. Om Vibhave Namah
97. Om KanakaShyamaaya Namah
98. Om Jagadhkaaranaaya Namah
99. Om Avyayaaya Namah
100. Om Buddhavadharaaya Namah
101. Om Shaanthathmane Namah
102. Om Krisoth Namah
103. Om Leelamaanusha Vigrahaaya Namah
104. Om Damodharaaya Namah
105. Om Viraataroopaaya Namah
106. Om Bhoodhabhavyabhavath Prabhave Namah
107. Om Aadi Devaaya Namah
108. Om Deva Devaaya Namah

109. Om Prahladha Paripalakhaya Namah