INDEX TO CENTRAL ENACTMENTS
IN
ALPHABETICAL
ORDER
(As on 23rd July, 2010)
INDEX TO CENTRAL ENACTMENTS
IN
ALPHABETICAL AND
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
Ti 1
PAGE: 1
Name of the Act Year Act No
----------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
A Absorbed Areas (Laws) Act 1954 20
Acquired Territories (Merger) Act 1960 64
Acquisition of Certain Area at Ayodhya Act 1993 33
Additional Duties of Excise (Goods of Special Importance) Act 1957 58
Additional Duties of Excise (Textiles and Textile Articles) Act 1978 40
Additional Emoluments (Compulsory Deposit) Act 1974 37
Administrative Tribunals Act 1985 13
Administrative Tribunal (Amendment) Act 1986 19
Administrators-General Act 1963 45
Advocates Act 1961 25
Advocates’ Welfare Fund Act 2001 45
African Development Bank Act 1983 13
African Development Fund Act 1982 01
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export 1986 02
Development Authority Act, 1985
Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act 1937 01
Agriculturists' Loans Act 1884 12
Aircraft Act 1934 22
Airports Authority of India Act 1994 55
Airports Economic Regulatory Authority of India Act 2008 27
Air Corporations (Transfer of Undertakings and Repeal) Act 1994 13
Air Force Act 1950 45
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 14
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act 1987 47
Ajmer Tenancy and Land Records Act 1950 42
Alcock Ashdown Company Limited (Acquisition of Undertakings Act 1973 56
Aligarh Muslim University Act 1920 40
All-India Council for Technical Education Act 1987 52
All-India Institute of Medical Sciences Act 1956 25
All-India Services Act 1951 61
All-India Services Regulations (Indemnity) Act 1975 19
Aluminium Corporation of India Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1984 43
Aluminium) Undertaking Act
Amending Act 1897 05
Amending Act 1901 11
Amending Act 1903 01
Amritsar Oil Works (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1982 50
Anand Marriage Act 1909 07
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958 24
Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904 07
Andhra Pradesh and Madras (Alteration of Boundaries) Act 1959 56
Andhra Pradesh and Mysore (Transfer of Territory) Act 1968 36
Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council Act, 2005 2006 01
Andhra Scientific Company Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1982 71
Undertakings) Act
Andhra State Act 1953 30
Anti-Apartheid (United Nations Convention) Act 1981 48
Anti-Corruption Laws (Amendment) Act 1967 16
Anti-Hijacking Act 1982 65
Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 52
Apprentices Act 1961 52
Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996 26
Architects Act 1972 20
Armed Forces (Emergency Duties) Act 1947 15
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 2
Name of the Act Year Act No
----------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
A Armed Forces (Jammu and Kashmir) Special Powers Act 1990 21
Armed Forces (Punjab and Chandigarh) Special Powers Act 1983 34
Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act 1958 28
Armed Forces Tribunal Act 2007 55
Arms Act 1959 54
Army Act 1950 46
Army and Air Force (Disposal of Private Property) Act 1950 40
Arya Marriage Validation Act 1937 19
Asian Development Bank Act 1966 18
Asian Refractories Limited (Acquisition of Undertakings) Act 1971 65
Asiatic Society Act 1984 05
Assam (Alteration of Boundaries) Act 1951 47
Assam Criminal Law Amendment (Supplementary) Act 1934 27
Assam Municipal (Manipur Amendment) Act 1961 49
Assam Reorganisation (Meghalaya) Act 1969 55
Assam Rifles Act 1941 05
Assam Rifle Act 2006 47
Assam Sillimanite Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Refractory Plant) Act 1976 22
Assam University Act 1989 23
Atomic Energy Act 1962 33
Actquaries Act 2006 35
Auroville Foundation Act 1988 54
Authoritative Texts (Central Laws) Act 1973 50
B Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Act 1994 58
Banaras Hindu University Act 1915 16
Bangalore Marriages Validating Act 1936 16
Bankers' Books Evidence Act 1891 18
Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1970 05
Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1980 40
Banking Laws (Application to Co-operative Societies) Act 1965 23
Banking Laws (Amendment) Act 1985 81
Banking Regulation Act 1949 10
Bar Councils (Validation of State Laws) Act 1956 04
Beedi and Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act 1966 32
Beedi and Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Amendment Act 1993 41
Beedi Workers Welfare Cess Act 1976 56
Beedi Workers Welfare Fund Act 1976 62
Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act 1988 45
Bengal, Agra and Assam Civil Courts Act 1887 12
Bengal Alluvion and Diluvion Act 1847 09
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and Assam Laws Act 1912 07
Bengal Bonded Warehouse Association Act 1838 05
Bengal Bonded Warehouse Association Act 1854 05
Bengal Chaukidari Act 1856 20
Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works Limited (Acquisition and 1980 58
Transfer of Undertakings) Act
Bengal Criminal Law Amendment (Supplementary) Act 1925 ..
Bengal Districts Act 1836 21
Bengal Embankment Act 1855 32
Bengal Finance (Sales Tax) (Delhi Validation of Appointments and 1971 20
Proceedings) Act
Bengal Ghatwali Lands Act 1859 05
Bengal Immunity Company Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1984 57
Undertakings) Act
Bengal Indigo Contracts Act 1836 10
Bengal Land Holders' Attendance Act 1848 20
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 3
Name of the Act Year Act No
----------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
B Bengal Land Revenue Sales Act 1841 12
Bengal Land Revenue Sales Act 1859 11
Bengal Military Police Act 1892 05
Bengal Rent Act 1859 10
Bengal Suppression of Terrorist Outrages (Supplementary) Act 1932 24
Bengal Tenancy Act 1885 08
Berar Laws Act 1941 04
Betwa River Board (Amendment) Act 1993 49
Betwa River Board Act 1976 63
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited 1988 44
(Determination of Conditions of Service of Employees) Act
Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster (Processing of Claims) Act 1985 21
Bihar Land Reforms Laws (Regulating Mines and Minerals) Validation Act 1969 42
Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000 2000 30
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act 1968 24
Bihar Value Added Tax Act 2005 27
Bihar and West Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act 1956 40
Bikrama Singh's Estates Act 1883 10
Biological Diversity Act, 2002 2003 18
Bird and Company Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings and 1980 67
Other Properties) Act
Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration Act 1886 06
Bolani Ores Limited (Acquisition of Shares) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act 1978 42
Bombay Civil Courts Act 1869 14
Bombay Municipal Debentures Act 1876 15
Bombay Public Security Measures (Delhi Amendment) Act 1948 52
Bombay Rent-free Estates Act 1852 11
Bombay Reorganisation Act 1960 11
Bombay Revenue Jurisdiction Act 1876 10
Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976 19
Border Security Force Act 1968 47
Boundaries 1847 01
Boundary-marks, Bombay 1846 03
Brahmaputra Board Act 1980 46
Braithwaite and Company (India) Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1976 96
Undertakings) Act
Brentford Electric (India) Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1987 36
Undertakings) Act
Britannia Engineering Company Limited (Mokameh Unit) and the Arthur 1978 41
Butler and Company (Muzaffarpore) Limited (Acquisition and Transfer
of Undertakings) Act
British India Corporation Limited (Acquisition of Shares) Act 1981 29
British Statutes (Application to India) Repeal Act 1960 57
Broach and Kaira Incumbered Estates Act 1877 14
Bronze Coin (Legal Tender) Act 1918 22
Building and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment 1996 27
and Conditions of Service) Act
Building and Other Construction Workers' Welfare Cess Act 1996 28
Bureau of Indian Standards Act 1986 63
Burmah Oil Company [Acquisition of Shares of Oil India Limited and of the 1981 41
Undertakings in India of Assam Oil Company Limited and the Burmah Oil
Company (India Trading) Limited] Act
Burmah Shell (Acquisition of Undertakings in India) Act 1976 02
Burn Company and Indian Standard Wagon Company (Nationalisation) Act 1976 97
C Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act 1995 07
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 4
Name of the Act Year Act No
----------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
C Calcutta High Court (Extension of Jurisdiction) Act 1953 41
Calcutta High Court (Jurisdictional Limits) Act 1919 15
Calcutta Land-revenue Act 1850 23
Calcutta Land-revenue Act 1856 18
Calcutta Metro Railway (Operation and Maintenance) Temporary 1985 10
Provisions Act
Calcutta Pilots Act 1859 12
Calcutta Port (Pilotage) Act 1948 33
Caltex [Acquisition of Shares of Caltex Oil Refining (India) Limited and 1977 17
of the Undertakings in India of Caltex (India) Limited] Act
Cantonments (Extension of Rent Control Laws) Act 1957 46
Cantonments (House Accommodation) Act 1923 06
Cantonments Act 1924 02
Cantonments Act 2006 41
Capital of Punjab Development and Regulation (Chandigarh Amendment) Act 1973 17
Cardamom Act 1965 42
Carriage by Air Act 1972 69
Carriage by Air (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 28
Carriage by Road Act,2007 2007 41
Carriers Act 1865 03
Caste Disabilities Removal Act 1850 21
Cattle-trespass Act 1871 01
Census Act 1948 37
Central Agricultural University Act 1992 40
Central Boards of Revenue Act 1963 54
Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission)Act 2007 05 Central Excises Act 1944 01 Central Excises and Salt (Amendment) Act 1985 79
Central Excise Tariff Act, 1985 1986 05
Central Excises (Conversion to Metric Units) Act 1960 38
Central Industrial Security Force (Amendment and Validation) Act 1999 40
Central Industrial Security Force Act 1968 50
Central Labour Laws (Extension to Jammu and Kashmir) Act 1970 51
Central Laws (Extension to Arunachal Pradesh) Act 1993 44
Central Laws (Extension to Jammu and Kashmir) Act 1968 25
Central Provinces Court of Wards Act 1899 24
Central Provinces Financial Commissioner's Act 1908 13
Central Provinces Land-revenue Act 1881 18
Central Provinces Laws Act 1875 20
Central Provinces Tenancy Act 1898 11
Central Road Fund Act 2000 54
Central Reserve Police Force Act 1949 66
Central Sales Tax (Amendment) Act 1969 28
Central Sales Tax Act 1956 74
Central Silk Board Act 1948 61
Central Universities Act, 2009 2009 25
Central Universities (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 38
Central Vigilance Commission Act 2003 45
Cess and Other Taxes on Minerals (Validation) Act 1992 16
Chandernagore (Merger) Act 1954 36
Chandigarh (Delegation of Powers) Act, 1987 1988 02
Chandigarh Disturbed Areas Act 1983 33
Chaparmukh Silghat Railway Line and the Katakhal Lalabazar Railway Line 1982 36
(Nationalisation) Act
Charitable Endowments Act 1890 06
Charitable and Religious Trusts Act 1920 14
Chartered Accountants Act 1949 38
Chemical Weapons Convention Act, 2000 2000 34
Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 61
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 5
Name of the Act Year Act No
------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
Children (Pledging of Labour) Act 1933 02
Chit Funds Act 1982 40
Chota Nagpur Encumbered Estates Act 1876 06
Church of Scotland Kirk Sessions Act 1899 23
Cigarettes (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act 1975 49
Cigarettes and other Tobacco Products (Prohibition of Advertisement and 2003 34
Regulation of Trade and Commerce, Production, Supply and Distribution) Act
Cinematograph Act 1918 02
Cinematograph Act 1952 37
Cine-Workers and Cinema Theatre Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act 1981 50
Cine-Workers Welfare Cess Act 1981 30
Cine-Workers Welfare Fund Act 1981 33
Citizenship Act 1955 57
City of Bombay Municipal (Supplementary) Act 1888 12
Civil Defence Act 1968 27
Coal Bearing Areas (Acquisition and Development) Act 1957 20
Coal Bearing Areas (Acquisition and Development) Amendment and 1971 54
Validation Act
Coal India (Regulation of Transfers and Validation) Act 2000 45
Coal Mines (Conservation and Development) Act 1974 28
Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act 1973 26
Coal Mines Labour Welfare Fund (Repeal) Act 1986 27
Coal Mines Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act 1948 46
Coal Mines (Taking Over of Management) Act 1973 15
Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act 2005 24
Coast Guard Act 1978 30
Coasting Vessels Act 1838 19
Coconut Development Board Act 1979 05
Code of Civil Procedure 1908 05
Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 1974 02
Coffee Act 1942 07
Coinage Act 1906 03
Coir Industry Act 1953 45
Coking Coal Mines (Emergency Provisions) Act 1971 64
Coking Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act 1972 36
Collection of Statistics Act 1953 32
Collection of Statistics Act 2009 07
Colonial Courts of Admiralty (India) Act 1891 16
Commanders-in-Chief (Change in Designation) Act 1955 19
Commercial Documents Evidence Act 1939 30
Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2006 2006 04
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1952 60
Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 1988 03
Companies Act 1956 01
Companies (Amendment) Act 1988 31
Companies (Donations to National Funds) Act 1951 54
Companies (Profits) Surtax Act 1964 07
Company Secretaries Act 1980 56
Competition Act, 2002 2003 12
Competition (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 39
Comptroller and Auditor General's (Duties, Powers and Conditions of 1971 56 Service) Act
Compulsory Deposit Scheme Act 1963 21
Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of 1974 52
Smuggling Activities Act
Consumer Protection Act 1986 68
Contempt of Courts Act 1971 70
Contingency Fund of India Act 1950 49
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 6
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
C Continuance of Legal Proceedings Act 1948 38
Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act 1970 37
Control of National Highways (Land and Traffic) Act, 2002 2003 13
Converts' Marriage Dissolution Act 1866 21
Cooch-Behar (Assimilation of Laws) Act 1950 67
Co-operative Societies Act 1912 02
Copyright Act 1957 14
Coroners Act 1871 04
Cost and Works Accountants Act 1959 23
Cotton Copra and Vegetable Oils Cess (Abolition) Act 1987 04
Court-fees Act 1870 07
Court-fees (Delhi Amendment) Act 1967 28
Credit Information Companies (Regulation) Act 2005 30
Criminal and Election Laws Amendment Act 1969 35
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1932 23
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1938 20
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1961 23
Customs Act 1962 52
Customs (Amendment) Act 1985 80
Customs and Central Excise Laws (Repeal) Act 2004 25
Customs Duties and Cesses (Conversion to Metric Units) Act 1960 40
Customs Tariff Act 1975 51
Cutchi Memons Act 1938 10
D Dadra and Nagar Haveli Act 1961 35
Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha Act 1964 14
Dalmia Dadri Cement Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1981 31
Damodar Valley Corporation Act 1948 14
Dangerous Machines (Regulation) Act 1983 35
Decrees and Orders Validating Act 1936 05
Dehra Dun 1871 21
Dekkhan Agriculturists Relief Act 1879 17
Delhi Agricultural Produce Marketing (Regulation) Act 1976 87
Delhi and Ajmer-Merwara Land Development Act 1948 66
Delhi and Ajmer Rent Control Act 1952 38
Delhi and Ajmer Rent Control (Nasirabad Cantonment Repeal) Act 1968 49
Delhi Apartment Ownership Act 1986 58
Delhi Co-operative Societies Act 1972 35
Delhi Delegation of Powers Act 1964 23
Delhi Development Act 1957 61
Delhi Development Authority (Validation of Disciplinary Powers) Act, 1998 1999 06
Delhi Fire Prevention and Fire Safety Act 1986 56
Delhi High Court Act 1966 26
Delhi High Court (Amendment) Act 1980 37
Delhi Hotels (Control of Accommodation) Act 1949 24
Delhi Land Holdings (Ceiling) Act 1960 24
Delhi Lands (Restriction on Transfer) Act 1972 30
Delhi Laws Act 1912 13
Delhi Laws (Special Provisions) Act 2006 22
Delhi Laws Act 1915 07
Delhi Metro Railways (Operation and Maintenance) Act 2002 60
Delhi Motor Vehicles Taxation Act 1962 57
Delhi Police Act 1978 34
Delhi Primary Education Act 1960 39
Delhi Rent Act 1995 33
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 7
Name of the Act Year Act No
-------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------------------------
D Delhi Rent Control Act 1958 59
Delhi Restriction of Uses of Land Act 1941 12
Delhi Road Transport Laws (Amendment) Act 1971 71
Delhi Sales Tax Act 1975 43
Delhi Sales Tax (Amendment and Validation) Act 1976 91
Delhi School Education Act 1973 18
Delhi Sikh Gurdwaras Act 1971 82
Delhi Special Police Establishment Act 1946 25
Delhi University Act 1922 08
Delhi (Urban Areas) Tenants' Relief Act 1961 30
Delhi Urban Art Commission Act, 1973 1974 01
Delimitation Act 2002 33
Delivery of Books and Newspapers (Public Libraries) Act 1954 27
Dentists Act 1948 16
Departmental Inquiries (Enforcement of Attendance of Witnesses and 1972 18
Production of Documents) Act
Departmentalisation of Union Accounts (Transfer of Personnel) Act 1976 59
Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation Act 1961 47
Deposit Insurance Corporation (Amendment and Miscellaneous 1978 21
Provisions) Act
Depositories Act 1996 22
Designs Act 2000 16
Destruction of Records Act 1917 05
Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1914 02
Destructive Insects and Pests (Amendment and Validation) Act 1992 12
Diplomatic and Consular Officers (Oaths and Fees) Act 1948 41
Diplomatic and Consular Officers (Oaths and Fees) (Extension to Jammu 1973 02
and Kashmir) Act
Diplomatic Relations (Vienna Convention) Act 1972 43
Direct Tax Laws (Amendment) Act 1989 03
Direct-Tax Laws (Miscellaneous) Repeal Act 2000 20
Disaster Management Act 2005 53
Displaced Persons (Debts Adjustment) Act 1951 70
Disputed Elections (Prime Minister and Speaker) Act 1977 16
Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act 1939 08
Disturbed Areas (Special Courts) Act 1976 77
Divorce Act 1869 04
Dock Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act 1948 09
Dock Workers (Regulation of Employment) (Inapplicability to Major 1997 31
Ports) Act
Dock Workers (Safety, Health and Welfare) Act 1986 54
Dourine Act 1910 05
Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 28
Dramatic Performances Act 1876 19
Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940 23
Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act 1954 21
Drugs (Control) Act 1950 26
Durgah Khawaja Saheb Act 1955 36
E Easements (Extending Act 5 of 1882) 1891 08
East-Punjab Urban Rent Restriction (Extension to Chandigarh) Act 1974 54
Economic Offences (Inapplicability of Limitation) Act 1974 12
Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners 1991 11
and Transaction of Business) Act
Election Laws (Extension to Sikkim) Act 1976 10
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 8
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
E Electricity Act 2003 36
Elephants' Preservation Act 1879 06
Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act 1950 12
Emigration Act 1983 31
Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act 1952 19
Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions (Amendment) Act 1988 33
Employees' State Insurance Act 1948 34
Employees' State Insurance (Amendment) Act 1989 29
Employers' Liability Act 1938 24
Employment Exchanges (Compulsory Notification of Vacancies) Act 1959 31
Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines 1993 46
(Prohibition) Act
Enemy Property Act 1968 34
English and Foreign Languages University Act 2007 07
Energy Conservation Act 2001 52
Environment (Protection) Act 1986 29
Epidemic Diseases Act 1897 03
Equal Remuneration Act 1976 25
Essential Commodities Act 1955 10
Essential Commodities (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2009 2009 36
Essential Services Maintenance (Assam) Act 1980 41
Esso (Acquisition of Undertakings in India) Act 1974 04
Exchange of Prisoners Act 1948 58
Excise (Malt Liquors) Act 1890 13
Excise (Spirits) Act 1863 16
Expenditure-tax Act 1987 35
Explosive Substances Act 1908 06
Explosives Act 1884 04
Export-Import Bank of India Act 1981 28
Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act 1963 22
Extradition Act 1962 34
F Factories Act 1948 63
Family Courts Act 1984 66
Faridabad Development Corporation Act 1956 90
Fatal Accidents Act 1855 13
Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1951 33
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act 2003 39
Food Corporations Act 1964 37
Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 34
Foreign Aircraft (Exemption from Taxes and Duties on Fuel and Lubricants) 2002 36
Act
Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act 1976 49
Foreign Exchange Management Act 1999 42
Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1947 47
Foreign Marriage Act 1969 33
Foreign Recruiting Act 1874 04
Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act 1992 22
Foreigners Act 1946 31
Foreigners Law (Application and Amendment) Act 1962 42
Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 69
Forfeited Deposits Act 1850 25
Former Secretary of State Service Officers (Conditions of Service) Act 1972 59
Fort William Act 1881 13
Forward Contracts (Regulation) Act 1952 74
Futwah-Islampur Light Railway Line (Nationalisation) Act 1985 83
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 9
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
G Ganesh Flour Mills Company Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1984 16
Undertakings) Act
Ganges Tolls 1867 01
General Clauses Act 1897 10
General Insurance Business (Nationalisation) Act 1972 57
General Insurance Business (Nationalisation) Amendment Act 1985 03
Geneva Conventions Act 1960 06
Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act 1999 48
Gift-tax Act 1958 18
Glanders and Farcy Act 1899 13
Gram Nyayalayas Act 2009 04
Goa, Daman and Diu (Absorbed Employees) Act 1965 50 Goa, Daman and Diu (Administration) Act 1962 01
Goa, Daman and Diu (Extension of the Code of Civil Procedure and the 1965 30
Arbitration Act) Act
Goa, Daman and Diu Mining Concessions (Abolition and Declaration as 1987 16
Mining Leases) Act
Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act 1987 18
Gold Bonds (Immunities and Exemptions) Act 1993 25
Government Buildings Act 1899 04
Government Grants Act 1895 15
Government Management of Private Estates Act 1892 10
Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi Act, 1991 1992 01
Government of Union Territories Act 1963 20
Government Savings Banks Act 1873 05
Government Savings Certificates Act 1959 46
Government Seal Act 1862 03
Governent Securities Act 2006 38
Governors (Emoluments, Allowances and Privileges) Act 1982 43
Gresham and Craven of India (Private) Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1977 42
Undertakings) Act
Guardians and Wards Act 1890 08
H Hackney-carriage Act 1879 14
Haj Committee Act 2002 35
Handlooms (Reservation of Articles for Production) Act 1985 22
Haryana and Punjab Agricultural Universities Act 1970 16
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act 1979 31
High Court and Bombay (Extension of Jurisdiction to Goa, Daman and 1981 26
Diu) Act
High Court at Patna (Establishment of a Permanent Bench at Ranchi) Act 1976 57
High Court Judges (Salaries and Conditions of Service) Act 1954 28
High Courts (Seals) Act 1950 07
High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act 1978 11
Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act 1954 32
Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly (Constitution and Proceedings) 1958 56
Validation Act
Hind Cycles Limited and Sen-Raleigh Limited (Nationalisation) Act 1980 70
Hindi Sahitya Sammelan Act 1962 13
Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act 1956 78
Hindu Disposition of Property Act 1916 15
Hindu Gains of Learning Act 1930 30
Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities) Act 1928 12
Hindu Marriage Act 1955 25
Hindu Marriages (Validation of Proceedings) Act 1960 19
Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 1956 32
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 10
Name of the Act Year Act No
-- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------H Hindu Succession Act 1956 30
Hindustan Tractors Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1978 13
Homoeopathy Central Council Act 1973 59
Hooghly Docking and Engineering Company Limited (Acquisition and 1984 55
Transfer of Undertakings) Act
Hotel-Receipts Tax Act 1980 54
Howrah Offences Act 1857 21
I Identification of Prisoners Act 1920 33
Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act 1983 39*
Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Act 2000 52
Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act 1950 10
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 1956 104
Imperial Library (Change of Name) Act 1948 51
Improvements in Towns 1850 26
Inchek Tyres Limited and National Rubber Manufacturers Limited 1984 17
(Nationalisation) Act
Income-tax Act 1961 43
Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986 60
Indian Bar Councils Act 1926 38
Indian Bills of Lading Act 1856 09
Indian Boilers Act 1923 05
Indian Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1925 26
Indian Christian Marriage Act 1872 15
Indian Council of World Affairs Act 2001 29 Indian Contract Act 1872 09
Indian Copper Corporation (Acquisition of Undertaking) Act 1972 58
Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act 1908 14
Indian Easements Act 1882 05
Indian Evidence Act 1872 01
Indian Fisheries Act 1897 04
Indian Forest Act 1927 16
Indian Independence Pakistan Courts (Pending Proceedings) Act 1952 09
Indian Iron and Steel Company (Acquisition of Shares) Act 1976 89
Indian Law Reports Act 1875 18
Indian Maritime University Act,2008 2008 22
Indian Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Act 1948 40
Indian Medical Council Act 1956 102
Indian Medical Degrees Act 1916 07
Indian Medicine Central Council Act 1970 48
Indian Museum Act 1910 10
Indian Naval Armament Act 1923 07
Indian Nursing Council Act 1947 48
Indian Partnership Act 1932 09
Indian Penal Code 1860 45
Indian Ports Act 1908 15
Indian Post Office Act 1898 06
Indian Railway Board Act 1905 04
Indian Red Cross Society Act 1920 15
Indian Reserve Forces Act 1888 04
*(Struck down by Supreme Court in Saarbananda Sonowal V/S Union of India (2005) 5 Supreme Court Cases 665
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 11
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
I Indian Short Titles Act 1897 14
Indian Soldiers (Litigation) Act 1925 04
Indian Stamp Act 1899 02
Indian Statistical Institute Act 1959 57
Indian Succession Act 1925 39
Indian Telegraph Act 1885 13
Indian Tolls Act 1851 08
Indian Tolls Act 1888 08
Indian Tolls Act 1864 15
Indian Tolls (Army and Air Force) Act 1901 02
Indian Tramways Act 1886 11
Indian Tramways Act 1902 04
Indian Treasure-trove Act 1878 06
Indian Trusts Act 1882 02
Indian Veterinary Council Act 1984 52
Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act 1933 17
Indian Rifles (Repeal) Act 2006 49
Indira Gandhi National Open University Act 1985 50
Indira Gandhi National Tribal University Act 2007 52
Indo-Tibetan Border Police Force Act 1992 35
Industrial Development Bank (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act 2003 53
Industrial Disputes Act 1947 14
Industrial Disputes (Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1956 36
Industrial Disputes (Banking and Insurance Companies) Act 1949 54
Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act 1946 20
Industrial Finance Corporation (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act 1993 23
Industrial Reconstruction Bank (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act 1997 07
Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India Act 1984 62
Industries (Development and Regulation) Act 1951 65
Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and 1992 41
Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act
Inflammable Substances Act 1952 20
Information Technology Act 2000 21
Inland Vessels Act 1917 01
Inland Waterways Authority of India Act 1985 82
Insecticides Act 1968 46
Institutes of Technology Act 1961 59
Insurance Act 1938 04
Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act 1999 41
Intelligence Organisations (Restriction on Rights) Act 1985 58
Interest Act 1978 14
Industrial Undertakings Act [Rep. by Act 27 of 2006 (w.e.f. date to be notified)]
Interest-tax Act 1974 45
International Development Association (Status, Immunities and Privileges) Act 1960 32
International Finance Corporation (Status, Immunities and Privileges) Act 1958 42
International Monetary Fund and Bank Act 1945 00
Inter-State Corporation Act 1957 38
Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions 1979 30
of Service) Act
Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956 33
Iron Ore Mines, Manganese Ore Mines and Chrome Ore Mines Labour Welfare 1976 55
Cess Act
Iron Ore Mines, Manganese Ore Mines and Chrome Ore Mines Labour Welfare 1976 61
Fund Act
Indian Maritime University Act, 2008 2008 22
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 12
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
J Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial Act 1951 25
Jamia Millia Islamia Act 1988 58
Jammu and Kashmir (Extension of Laws) Act 1956 62
Jammu and Kashmir Representation of the People (Supplementary) Act 1968 03
Jawaharlal Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, 2008 19
Puducherry Act
Jawaharlal Nehru University Act 1966 53
Jayanti Shipping Company (Acquisition of Shares) Act 1971 63
Jharkhand Contingency Fund (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 37
Jubbalpore and Chhattisgarh Divisions (Divorce Proceedings Validation) Act 1935 13
Judges (Inquiry) Act 1968 51
Judges (Protection) Act 1985 59
Judicial Officers Protection Act 1850 18
Junagarh Administration (Property) Act 1948 26
Jute Companies (Nationalisation) Act 1980 62
Jute Manufactures Cess Act 1983 28
Jute Manufacturers Development Council Act 1983 27
Jute Packaging Materials (Compulsory Use in Packing Commodities) Act 1987 10
Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000 56
K Kalakshetra Foundation Act, 1993 1994 06
Kazis Act 1880 12
Khaddar (Protection of Name) Act 1950 78
Khadi and Village Industries Commission Act 1956 61
Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library Act 1969 43
King of Oudh's Estate Act 1887 19
King of Oudh's Estate Act 1888 14
King of Oudh's Estate Validation Act 1917 12
Konkan Passenger Ships (Acquisition) Act 1973 62
Kosangas Company (Acquisition of Undertakings) Act 1979 28
L Labour Laws (Exemption from Furnishing Returns and Maintaining Registers 1988 51
by certain Establishments) Act
Lady Hardinge Medical College and Hospital (Acquisition and Miscellaneous 1977 34
Provisions) Act
Lalitkala Akademi (Taking Over of Management) Act 1997 17
Land Acquisition Act 1894 01
Land Acquisition (Amendment) Act 1962 31
Land Acquisition (Amendment and Validation) Act 1967 13
Land Acquisition (Mines) Act 1885 18
Land Improvement Loans Act 1883 19
Laws Local Extent Act 1874 15
Laxmirattan and Atherton West Cotton Mills (Taking over of Management)Act 1976 98
Leaders of Chief Whips of Recognised Parties and Groups in Parliament 1999 05
(Facilities) Act, 1998
Legal Metrology Act 2010 01
Legal Practitioners Act 1879 18
Legal Practitioners (Fees) Act 1926 21
Legal Practitioners (Women) Act 1923 23
Legal Representatives' Suits Act 1855 12
Legal Services Authorities Act 1987 39
Legal Tender (Inscribed Notes) Act 1964 28
Legislative Assembly of Nagaland (Change in Representation) Act 1968 61
Legislative Councils Act 1957 37
Lepers Act 1898 03
Levy Sugar Price Equalisation Fund Act 1976 31
Life Insurance Corporation Act 1956 31
Life Insurance Corporation (Modification of Settlement) Act 1976 72
Light House Act 1927 17
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 13
Name of the Act Year Act No
--------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- ------------- --------
L Limestone and Dolomite Mines Labour Welfare Fund Act 1972 62
Limited Liability Partnership Act 2009 06
Limitation Act 1963 36
Live-stock Importation Act 1898 09
Local Authorities Loans Act 1914 09
Local Authorities Pensions and Gratuities Act 1919 01
Lok Sahayak Sena Act 1956 53
Lotteries (Regulation) Act 1998 17
Lushai Hills District (Change of Name) Act 1954 18
M Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act 2000 28
Madras, Bengal and Bombay Children (Supplementary) Act 1925 35
Madras City Civil Court Act 1892 07
Madras City Land Revenue Act 1851 12
Madras Civil Courts Act 1873 03
Madras Compulsory Labour Act 1858 01
Madras District Police Act 1859 24
Madras Forest (Validation) Act 1882 21
Madras Public Property Malversation Act 1837 36
Madras Rent and Revenue Sales Act 1839 07
Madras Revenue Commissioner Act 1849 10
Madras Uncovenated Officers' Act 1857 07
Mahatama Gandhi Antarashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya Act, 1996 1997 03
Mahendra Pratap Singh Estate (Repeal) Act 1960 48
Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act 2007 56
Maintenance Orders Enforcement Act 1921 18
Major Port Trusts Act 1963 38
Majority Act 1875 09
Mangrol and Manavadar (Administration of Property) Act 1949 02
Manipur and Tripura (Repeal of Laws) Act 1958 35
Manipur (Courts) Act 1955 56
Manipur (Hill Areas District Council) Act 1971 76
Manipur Land Revenue and Land Reforms Act 1960 33
Manipur Municipalities Act 1994 43
Manipur Panchayati Raj Act 1994 26
Manipur (Sales of Motor Spirit and Lubricants) Taxation Act 1962 55
Manipur University Act 2005 54
Manipur (Village Authorities in Hill Areas) Act 1956 80
Manoeuvres, Field Firing and Artillery Practice Act 1938 05
Marine Insurance Act 1963 11
Marine Products Export Development Authority Act 1972 13
Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of Fishing by Foreign Vessels) Act 1981 42
Marking of Heavy Packages Act 1951 39
Marriages Validation Act 1892 02
Married Women's Property Act 1874 03
Married Women's Property (Extension) Act 1959 61
Maruti Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1980 64
Maternity Benefit Act 1961 53
Maulana Azad National Urdu University Act, 1996 1997 02
Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971 34
Medicinal and Toilet Preparations (Excise Duties) Act 1955 16
Mental Health Act 1987 14
Merchant Shipping Act 1958 44
Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act 1986 33
Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act 1987 13
Merged States (Laws) Act 1949 59
Metal Corporation (Nationalisation and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1976 100
Metal Tokens Act 1889 01
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 14
Name of the Act Year Act No
-- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------
M Metro Railways (Construction of Works) Act 1978 33
Mica Mines Labour Welfare Fund Act 1946 22
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Act, 2006 2006 27
Mines Act 1952 35
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation ) Act 1957 67
Minimum Wages Act 1948 11
Mirzapur Stone Mahal Act 1886 05
Miscellaneous Personal Laws (Extension) Act 1959 48
Mizoram University Act 2000 08
Mogul Line Limited (Acquisition of Shares) Act 1984 33
Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act 1969 54
Motor Transport Workers Act 1961 27
Motor Vehicles Act 1988 59
Multimodal Transportation of Goods Act 1993 28
Multi-State Co-operative Societies Act 2002 39
Municipal Taxation Act 1881 11
Murshidabad Act 1891 15
Murshidabad Estate Administration Act 1933 23
Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act 1937 26
Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986 25
Mussalman Wakf Act 1923 42
Mussalman Wakf Validating Act 1913 06
Mussalman Wakf Validating Act 1930 32
N. Naga Hills-Tuensang Area Act 1957 42
Nagaland University Act 1989 35
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act 1985 61
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development Act 1981 61
National Cadet Corps Act 1948 31
National Capital Territory of Delhi Laws (Special Provisions) 2007 43
National Capital Territory of Delhi Laws (Special Provisions)
Act, 2009 2009 24
National Capital Territory of Delhi Laws (Special Provisions) Second
Act, 2009 2009 40
National Capital Region Planning Board Act 1985 02
National Commission for Backward Classes Act 1993 27
National Commission for Minorities Act 1992 19
National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004 2005 02
National Commission for Safai Karamcharis Act 1993 64
National Commission for Women Act 1990 20
National Company (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act 1980 42
National Co-operative Development Corporation Act 1962 26
National Council for Teacher Education Act 1993 73
National Dairy Development Board Act 1987 37
National Environment Appellate Authority Act 1997 22
National Environment Tribunal Act 1995 27
National Green Tribunal Act 2010 19
National Highways Act 1956 48
National Highways Authority of India Act 1988 68
National Housing Bank Act 1987 53
National Institute of Fashion Technology Act 2006 28
National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Act 1998 13
National Investigation Agency Act 2008 34
National Jute Board Act, 2008 2009 12
National Library of India Act 1976 76
National Oil Seeds and Vegetable Oils Development Board Act 1983 29
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 42
National Rural Employment Guarantee (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 46
National Rural Employment Guarantee (Extension to Jammu And Kashmir) Act 2007 23
National Institutes of Technology Act. 2007 29
National Security Act 1980 65
National Security Guard Act 1986 47
National Service Act 1972 28
National Tax Tribunal Act 2005 49
National Thermal Power Corporation Limited, the National Hydro-Electric 1993 24
Power Corporation Limited and the North-Eastern Electric Power Corporation
Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Power Transmission Systems) Act
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 15
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, 1999 44
Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act
N National Waterway (Allahabad-Haldia Stretch of the 1982 49
Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River) Act
National Waterway (Kollam-Kottapuram Stretch of 1992 25
West Coast Canal and Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals) Act
National Waterway (Sadiya-Dhubri Stretch of the Brahmaputra River) Act 1988 40
National Waterway (Talcher-Dhamra Stretch of Rivers, Geonkhali-Charbatia 2008 23
Stretch of East Coast Canal, Charbatia-Dhamra Stretch of Matai River and
Mahanadi Delta Rivers) Act,2008
National Waterway (Kakinadi-Puducherry Stretch of Canals and the Kaluvelly 2008 24
Tank, Bhadrachalam-Rajahmundary Stretch of River Godavari and Wazirabad-
Vijayawada Stretch of River Krishna) Act, 2008
Naval and Aircraft Prize Act 1971 59
Navy Act 1957 62
Negotiable Instruments Act 1881 26
New Delhi Municipal Council Act 1994 44
Newspaper (Price and Page) Act 1956 45
Newspaper (Price and Page Continuance) Act 1961 36
Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited (Acquisition 1994 56
and Transfer of Power Transmission System) Act
North-Eastern Area (Reorganisation) Act 1971 81
North-Eastern Council Act 1971 84
North-Eastern Hill University Act 1973 24
North-Eastern Provinces Village and Road Police Act 1873 16
Northern India Canal and Drainage Act 1873 08
Northern India Ferries Act 1878 17
Notaries Act 1952 53
OOaths ct 1969 44
Obstructions in Fairways Act 1881 16
Official Languages Act 1963 19
Official Secrets Act 1923 19
Official Trustees Act 1913 02
Offshore Areas Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2002 2003 17
Oil and Natural Gas Commission (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act 1993 65
Oil Fields (Regulation and Development) Act 1948 53
Oil Industry (Development) Act 1974 47
Opium and Revenue Laws (Extension of Application) Act 1950 33
Oriental Gas Company 1857 05
Oriental Gas Company 1867 11
Orissa Weights and Measures (Delhi Repeal) Act 1958 57
Orphanages and Other Charitable Homes (Supervision and Control) Act 1960 10
Oudh Estates Act 1869 01
Oudh Laws Act 1876 18
Oudh Sub-settlement Act 1866 26
Oudh Taluqdars' Relief Act 1870 24
Oudh Wasikas Act 1886 21
P Parel Investment and Trading Private Limited and Domestic Gas Private 2005 14
Limited (Taking Over of Management) Repeal Act
Parliament (Prevention of Disqualification) Act 1959 10
Parliamentary Proceedings (Protection of Publication) Act 1977 15
Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act 1936 03
Part B States (Laws) Act 1951 03
Part B States Marriages Validating Act 1952 01
Part C States Miscellaneous Laws (Repealing) Act 1951 66
Parliamentary Proceedings (Protection of Publication) Repeal Act 1976 28
Partition Act 1893 04
Partition of Revenue-paying Estates 1863 19
Passport (Entry into India) Act 1920 34
Passports Act 1967 15
Patents Act 1970 39
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 16
Name of the Act Year Act No
-------------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------------------
P Payment and Settlement Systems Acr 2007 51
Payment of Bonus Act 1965 21
Payment of Gratuity Act 1972 39
Payment of Gratuity (Amendment) Act 1987 22
Payment of Gratuity (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 47
Payment of Wages Act 1936 04
Pensions Act 1871 23
Personal Injuries (Compensation Insurance) Act 1963 37
Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full 1996 01
Participation) Act, 1995
Petroleum Act 1934 30
Petroleum and Minerals Pipelines (Acquisition of Right of User in Land) Act 1962 50
Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board, Act 2006 19
Pharmacy Act 1948 08
Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act 1991 42
Plantations Labour Act 1951 69
Poisons Act 1919 12
Police Act 1861 05
Police Act 1888 03
Police Act 1949 64
Police, Agra 1854 16
Police Forces (Restriction of Rights) Act 1966 33
Police (Incitement to Disaffection) Act 1922 22
Pondicherry (Administration) Act 1962 49
Pondicherry (Extension of Laws) Act 1968 26
Pondicherry University Act 1985 53
Pondichery (Alteration of Name) Act 2006 44
Porahat Estate Act 1893 02
Post-Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, Act 1966 51
Post Office Cash Certificates Act 1917 18
Powers-of-Attorney Act 1882 07
Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Act 1990 25
Preference Shares (Regulation of Dividend) Act 1960 63
Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of 1994 57
Sex Selection) Act
Presidency Small Cause Courts Act 1882 15
Presidency-towns Insolvency Act 1909 03
President (Discharge of Functions) Act 1969 16
Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act 1952 31
President's Emoluments and Pension Act 1951 30
Press and Registration of Books Act 1867 25
Press Council Act 1978 37
Prevention and Control of Infections and Contagious Diseases in
Animals Act, 2009 2009 27
Prevention of Blackmarketing and Maintenance of Supplies of Essential 1980 07
Commodities Act
Prevention of Corruption Act 1988 49
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960 59
Prevention of Damage to Public Property Act 1984 03
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954 37
Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 2003 15
Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act 1988 46
Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act 1971 69
Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act 1911 10
Prevention of Terrorism (Repeal) Act 2004 26
Prisoners Act 1900 03
Prisoners (Attendance in Courts) Act 1955 32
Prisons Act 1894 09
Private Security Agencies (Regulation) Act 2005 29
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 17
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
P Prize Chits and Money Circulation Scheme (Banning) Act 1978 43
Prize Competitions Act 1955 42
Probation of Offenders Act 1958 20
Produce Cess Laws (Abolition) Action, 2006 2006 46
Professions Tax Limitation (Amendment and Validation) Act 1949 61
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2007 06
Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 22
Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 1994 10
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Right Act 2001 53
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 43
Provident Funds Act 1925 19
Provincial Insolvency Act 1920 05
Provincial Small Cause Courts Act 1887 09
Provisional Collection of Taxes Act 1931 16
Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act 1996 40
` Public Accountants' Defaults Act 1850 12
Public Debt Act 1944 18
Public Employment (Requirement as to Residence) Act 1957 44
Public Financial Institutions (Obligation as to Fidelity and Secrecy) Act 1983 48
Public Gambling Act 1867 03
Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 06
Public Premises (Eviction of Unauthorised Occupants) Act 1971 40
Public Provident Fund Act 1968 23
Public Records Act 1993 69
Public Sector Iron and Steel Companies (Restructuring) and Miscellaneous 1978 16
Provisions Act
Public Servants (Inquiries) Act 1850 37
Public Suits Validation Act 1932 11
Public Wakfs (Extension of Limitation) Act 1959 29
Punjab District Boards Act 1883 20
Punjab Disturbed Areas Act 1983 32
Punjab Excise (Delhi Amendment) Act 1979 12
Punjab Gram Panchayat, Samities and Zilla Parishad (Chandigarh Repeal) Act 1994 27
Punjab Land Revenue Act 1887 17
Punjab Laws Act 1872 04
Punjab Legislative Council (Abolition) Act 1969 46
Punjab Municipal Corporation Law (Extension to Chandigarh) Act 1994 45
Punjab Reorganisation Act 1966 31
Punjab State Legislature (Delegation of Powers) Act 1984 36
Punjab Tenancy Act 1887 16
R Railway Claims Tribunal Act 1987 54
Railway Companies (Emergency Provisions) Act 1951 51
Railway Property (Unlawful Possession) Act 1966 29
Railway Protection Force Act 1957 23
Railway Protection Force (Amendment) Act 1985 60
Railways Act 1989 24
Railways Employment of Members of the Armed Forces Act 1965 40
Railways (Local Authorities' Taxation) Act 1941 25
Raipur and Khattra Laws Act 1879 19
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (Transfer of Territories) Act 1959 47
Rajghat Samadhi Act 1951 41
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology Act 2007 54
Rajiv Gandhi University Act 2007 08
Rampur Raza Library Act 1975 22
Reciprocity Act 1943 09
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 18
Name of the Act Year Act No
-- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------
R Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act 1993 51
Red Cross Society (Allocation of Property) Act 1936 18
Reformatory Schools Act 1897 08
Regional Rural Banks Act 1976 21
Registration Act 1908 16
Registration of Births and Deaths Act 1969 18
Registration of Foreigners Act 1939 16
Rehabilitation Council of India Act 1992 34
Rehabilitation Finance Administration Act 1948 12
Religious Endowments Act 1863 20
Religious Institutions (Prevention of Misuse) Act 1988 41
Religious Societies Act 1880 01
Remittances of Foreign Exchange and Investment in Foreign Exchange Bonds 1991 41
(Immunities and Exemptions) Act
Rent Recovery Act 1853 06
Repatriation of Prisoners Act 2003 49
Representation of the People Act 1950 43
Representation of the People (Amendment) Act 1989 21
Representation of the People Act 1951 43
Representation of People (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 41
Representation of the People (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1956 88
Requisitioned Land (Apportionment of Compensation) Act 1949 51
Requisitioning and Acquisition of Immovable Property Act 1952 30
Research and Development Cess Act 1986 32
Reserve Bank (Transfer of Public Ownership) Act 1948 62
Reserve Bank of India Act 1934 02
Reserve Bank of India (Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1953 54
Reserve and Auxiliary Air Forces Act 1952 62
Resettlement of Displaced Persons (Land Acquisition) Act 1948 60
Revenue, Bombay 1842 13
Revenue Commissioners, Bombay 1842 17
Revenue Recovery Act 1890 01
Richardson and Cruddas Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of Under- 1972 78
takings) Act
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 2009 35
Right to Information Act 2005 22
River Boards Act 1956 49
Road Transport Corporations Act 1950 64
Rubber Act 1947 24
S SAARC Convention (Suppression of Terrorism) Act 1993 36
Salar Jung Museum Act 1961 26
Salary, Allowances and Pension of Members of Parliament Act 1954 30
Salaries and Allowances of Ministers Act 1952 58
Salaries and Allowances of Ministers (Amendment) Act, 2010 2010 02
Salaries and Allowances of Officers of Parliament Act 1953 20
Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act 1977 33
Sale of Goods Act 1930 03
Sales of Land for Revenue Arrears 1845 01
Sales Promotion Employees (Conditions of Service) Act 1976 11
Sales Tax Laws Validation Act 1956 07
Salt Cess Act 1953 49
Sarais Act 1867 22
Sashatra Seema Bal Act 2007 53
Scheduled Areas (Assimilation of Laws) Act 1951 37
Scheduled Areas (Assimilation of Laws) Act 1953 16
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Act 1956 63
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Act 1976 108
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989 33
Scheduled Securities (Hyderabad) Act 1949 07
Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
of Forest Rights) Act 2007 02
Science and Engineering Research Board Act 2009 09
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 19
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
S Seamen's Provident Fund Act 1966 04
Seaward Artillery Practice Act 1949 08
Securities and Exchange Board of India Act 1992 15
Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act 1956 42
Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of 2002 54
Security Interest Act
Seeds Act 1966 54
Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout Design Act 2000 37
Sheriff of Calcutta (Power of Custody) Act 1931 20
Sheriffs' Fees Act 1852 08
Shillong (Rifle Range and Umlong) Cantonments Assimilation of Laws Act 1954 31
Shipping Development Fund Committee (Abolition) Act 1986 66
Shore Nuisances (Bombay and Kolaba) Act 1853 11
Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985 1986 01
Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Repeal Act, 2003 2004 01
Sick Textile Undertakings (Nationalisation) Act 1974 57
Sick Textile Undertakings (Taking Over of Management) Act 1972 72
Sikh Gurdwaras (Supplementary) Act 1925 24
Sikkim University Act 2007 10
Sir Dinshaw Maneckjee Petit Act 1893 06
Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy Baronetcy Act 1915 10
Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act 1956 96
Small Coins (Offences) Act 1971 52
Small Industries Development Bank of India Act 1989 39
Smith, Stainstreet and Company Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1977 41
Undertakings) Act
Smugglers and Foreign Exchange Manipulators (Forfeiture of Property) Act 1976 13
Societies Registration Act 1860 21
Sonthal Parganas Act 1855 37
Sonthal Parganas Act 1857 10
South Asian University Act 2009 08
Special Court (Trial of Offences Relating to Transactions in Securities) Act 1992 27
Special Criminal Courts (Jurisdiction) Act 1950 18
Special Economic Zones Act 2005 28
Special Marriage Act 1954 43
Special Protection Group Act 1988 34
Specific Relief Act 1963 47
Spices Board Act 1986 10
The Spirituous Preparations (inter-State Trade and Commerce) Control
(Repeal) Act, 2006. 2006 32
Sports Broadcasting Signals (Mandatory sharing with Prasar Bharti) Act 2007 11
Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, 1980 52
Trivandrum Act
Stage-Carriages Act 1861 16
Standards of Weights and Measures Act 1976 60
Standards of Weights and Measures (Enforcement) Act 1985 54
Standards of Weights and Measures (Extension to Kohima and Mokokchung 1967 25
Districts) Act
State Acquisition of Lands for Union Purposes (Validation) Act 1954 23
State Agricultural Credit Corporation Act 1968 60
State Armed Police Forces (Extension of Laws) Act 1952 63
State Associated Banks (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1962 56
State Bank of Hyderabad Act 1956 79
State Bank of India Act 1955 23
State Bank of India (Subsidiary Banks) Act 1959 38
State Bank of Saurashtra (Repeal) and the State Bank of India
(Subsidiary Bank) Amendment Act, 2009 2009 48
State Bank of Sikkim (Acquisition of Shares) and Miscellaneous 1982 62
Provisions Act
State Emblems of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act 2005 50
State Financial Corporations Act 1951 63
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 20
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
S State of Arunachal Pradesh Act 1986 69
State of Himachal Pradesh Act 1970 53
State of Mizoram Act 1986 34
State of Nagaland Act 1962 27
States Reorganisation Act 1956 37
Sugar-Cane Act 1934 15
Sugar Cess Act 1982 03
Sugar Development Fund Act 1982 04
Sugar (Regulation of Production) Act 1961 55
Sugar Undertaking (Taking over of Management) Act 1978 49
Suits Valuation Act 1887 07
Suppression of Unlawful Acts against Safety of Civil Aviation Act 1982 66
Suppression of Unlawful Acts against Safety of Maritime Navigation and 2002 69
Fixed Platform on Continental Shelf Act
Supreme Court Advocates (Practice in High Courts) Act 1951 18
Supreme Court (Enlargement of Criminal Appellate Jurisdiction) Act 1970 28
Supreme Court Judges ( Salaries and Conditions of Service) Act 1958 41
Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Act 1956 55
Swadeshi Cotton Mills Company Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1986 30
Undertakings) Act
T Tamil Nadu Agricultural Service Co-operative Societies (Appointment of 1988 22
Special Officers) Amendment Act
Tamil Nadu Legislative Council Act 2010 16
Taxation Laws (Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1965 41
Taxation Laws (Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1986 46
Taxation Laws (Continuation and Validation of Recovery Proceedings) Act 1964 11
Taxation Laws (Extension to Jammu and Kashmir) Act 1954 41
Taxation Laws (Extension to Jammu and Kashmir) Act 1972 25
Tea Act 1953 29
Tea Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Sick Tea Units) Act 1985 37
Technology Development Board Act 1995 44
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act 1997 24
Telegraph Wires (Unlawful Possession) Act 1950 74
Terminal Tax on Railway Passengers Act 1956 69
Territorial Army Act 1948 56
Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and Other 1976 80
Maritime Zones Act
Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act 1984 61
Textile Undertakings (Nationalisation) Act 1995 39
Textile Undertakings (Taking Over of Management) Act 1983 40
Textiles Committee Act 1963 41
Tezpur University Act 1993 45
Tobacco Board Act 1975 04
Tobacco Cess Act 1975 26
Tobacco Duty (Town of Bombay) Act 1857 04
Tokyo Convention Act 1975 20
Trade Marks Act 1999 47
Trade Unions Act 1926 16
Trading with the Enemy (Continuance of Emergency Provisions) Act 1947 16
Transfer of Evacuee Deposits Act 1954 15
Transfer of Prisoners Act 1950 29
Transfer of Property Act 1882 04
Transfer of Property (Amendment) Supplementary Act 1929 21
Alphabetical List - Central Acts
PAGE: 21
Name of the Act Year Act No
- -------------------------------------------------- ---------- -------------------------------------------------------
T Transformer and Switchgear Limited (Acquisition and Transfer of 1983 41
Undertakings) Act
Transplantation of Human Organs Act 1994 42
Travancore-Cochin Vehicles Taxation (Amendment and Validation) Act 1959 42
Tripura Land Revenue and Land Reforms Act 1960 43
Tripura University Act 2007 09
Tyre Corporation of India Limited (Disinvestment of Ownership) Act 2007 50
U Union Duties of Excise (Distribution) Act 1979 24
Union Territories (Direct Election to the House of the People) Act 1965 49
Union Territories (Laws) Act 1950 30
Union Territories (Separation of Judicial and Executive Functions) Act 1969 19
Union Territories (Stamp and Court-fees Laws) Act 1961 33
Union Duties of Excise (Electricity) Distribution Repeal Act 2006 30
Unit Trust of India Act 1963 52
Unit Trust of India (Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act 2002 58
United Nations (Privileges and Immunities) Act 1947 46
United Nations (Security Council) Act 1947 43
United Provinces Act 1890 20
University Grants Commission Act 1956 03
University of Allahabad Act 2005 26
University of Hyderabad Act 1974 39
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967 37
Untouchability (Offences) Amendment and Miscellaneous Provision Act 1976 106
Unorganised Sector Workers Social Security Act 2008 33
Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act 1976 33
Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Repeal Act 1999 15
Usurious Loans Act 1918 10
Usury Laws Repeal Act 1855 28
Uttar Pradesh Cantonments (Control of Rent and Eviction) Repeal Act 1971 68
Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act 2000 29
Uttaranchal (Alteration of Name) 2006 52
V Vice-President's Pension Act 1997 30
Victoria Memorial Act
Visva-Bharati Act 1951 29
Voluntary Surrender of Salaries (Exemption from Taxation) Act 1961 46
W Wakf Act 1995 43
War Injuries (Compensation Insurance) Act 1943 23
Warehousing Corporations Act 1962 58
Warehousing Corporations (Supplementary) Act 1965 20
Warehousing (Development and Regulation) Act,2007 2007 37
Waste-Lands (Claims) Act 1863 23
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 06
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act 1977 36
Wealth-tax Act 1957 27
Weapons of Mass Destruction and Their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of 2005 21
Unlawful Activities) Act, 2005
Weekly Holidays Act 1942 18
West Godavari District (Assimilation of Laws on Federal Subjects) Act 1949 20
White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition Act 1913 05
Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act 1912 08
Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 53
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act 1991 44
Women's and Children's Institutions (Licensing) Act 1956 105
Working Journalists and other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service) 1955 45
and Miscellaneous Provisions Act
Working Journalists (Fixation of Rates of Wages) Act 1958 29
Workmen's Compensation Act 1923 08
Workmen’s Compensation (Amendment) Act, 2009 2009 45
Works of Defence Act 1903 07
Y Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act 1956 93
Sunday, October 23, 2011
s.radhakrishna works
The effect of western writers on Hindu scholars.
The primacy of English education and the abundance of biased literature regarding the history and the Vedic religion affected the Hindu society a great deal. The wrong historical dates of Hindu dynasties and the notable personalities that they fixed, especially Buddh, Chandragupt and Ashok, became a guideline, and many Hindu writers followed the same wrong trend.
Certain great scholars and the so-called patriots of India also had profound effects of western education on their minds that held the feeling of lowness for Hindu culture, history and religion. They too collected the intellectual dirt of the western writers and used it in their writings.
Not knowing what were they doing, their writings like: “Ram was only a good man. He was not God.” betrayed and confused millions of Hindus and contempted the authentic writings of Ved Vyas which are the national treasures of India.
We will give you a few examples.
S. Radhakrishnan (1888-1975).
His brief biography: Born near Madras, South India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan showed his intelligence since childhood. He received a Master’s degree in Arts from Madras University. His essay on “Ethics of the Vedant” (as a partial fulfillment for his Master’s degree) was highly appreciated by professor A.G. Hogg as it contained the boldness of thought and the neglect for the personal form of God.
In 1909 he was appointed to the Department of Philosophy of the Madras Presidency College. In 1918 he was appointed as a professor of Philosophy at the University of Mysore and in 1921 he was appointed at the University of Calcutta. In 1926 he represented the University of Calcutta at the Congress of the Universities of the British Empire. From 1936 to 1939 he was appointed as a professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at Oxford University, in 1939 he was elected as ‘Fellow of the British Academy’, and from 1939 to 1948 he was Vice Chancellor of the Benares Hindu University. He was the Vice President of India from 1952 to 1962 and he also held the Office of the Chancellor, Delhi University from 1953 to 1962. In 1962 he was elected the President of India.
He was known as a world figure in philosophy. Renowned for his philosophical writings and lectures, he had collected enormous information in his brain by reading all the books of the European writers who wrote about Indian scriptures, religion and history. He was a bookworm, and had also extensively studied western philosophy. South Indian brahmans used to do elaborate Vedic rituals in their temple ceremonies and they are famous for their correct Sanskrit pronunciation. Radhakrishnan had a slighting attitude toward them since the beginning.
The derogative views of Radhakrishnan about Hindu religion and scriptures.
We have written about Jones, Max Müller and the other writers of that group. Radhakrishnan was not only their admirer, he was the promoter of their views which is clearly evident from his writings. His prejudicial attitude toward the Vedic religion and sneering opinions about the historical Divine Masters and their writings are seen in every book he wrote. See a few examples:
Indian Philosophy Vol. I, first print 1923, reprint 1996. Indian Philosophy Vol. II, first print 1927, reprint 1996. The Bhagavadgita first print 1948, reprint 1994. The Principal Upanisads first print 1953, reprint 1995.
(About the early Hindus of Vedic religion)
“Man’s never-ceasing effort to raise himself above the level of the beast to a moral and spiritual height finds a striking illustration in India.” (Indian Philosophy Vol. II, p. 766)
(About the Rigved)
“The process of god-making in the factory of man’s mind cannot be seen so clearly anywhere else as in the Rg-Veda.” (Indian Philosophy Vol. I, p. 73)
(About the Atharvaved)
“The religion of the Atharva-Veda is that of the primitive man, to whom the world is full of shapeless ghosts and spirits of death.”
“The world becomes crowded with goblins and gods, and the catastrophes of the world are traced to dissatisfied spirits… The terrific powers could only be appeased by bloody sacrifices, human and animal… The religion of the Atharva-Veda is an amalgam of Aryan and non-Aryan ideals.” (Vol. I, pp. 119, 120)
(About the Upnishads)
“The Upanisads contain the earliest records of Indian speculation… they contain much that is inconsistent and unscientific.” (Vol I, p. 138)
(About the Puranas)
“The Puranas are the religious poetry of the period of the schools, representing through myth and story, symbol and parable, the traditional view of God and man… They were composed with the purpose of undermining, if possible, the heretical doctrines of the times.” (Vol. II, p. 663)
(About the Yog Darshan of Patanjali)
“The popular cult of magic is mixed up with the religious scheme of salvation in the Yoga.”
“Sometimes psychic powers are also attained by the use of drugs and anaesthetics. Narcotic intoxication and ecstatic state are confused by the popular mind. The use of drugs is not recommended in Patanjali’s Yoga, though it is mentioned as one of the ways of obtaining perfections. Thus the habit of drug intoxication prevalent in primitive tribes was mixed up with the higher mysticism of the Yoga. Spells and austerities also help us in acquiring these powers.” (Vol II, pp. 366, 368)
(About Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and his disciples)
“The orthodox were much disturbed by his startling ways. He accepted converts from Islam freely… His disciples, Rupa and Sanatana, were renegade converts to Islam and outcasts from the Hindu society.” (Vol. II, p. 761)
The Vedas and the Upnishads were originally produced by the Rishis, then, about 5,000 years ago, they were all reproduced by Bhagwan Ved Vyas. The Upnishads contain the knowledge about God, maya, soul and His devotion which is further explained in the systematically written short sentences of the Brahm Sutra by Ved Vyas who also revealed all the Puranas. Sage Patanjali expounded the yogic theme of the Upnishads in his Yog Darshan which explains the eightfold path of yogic practice to fully eliminate the worldly desires and to purify the heart so that the yogi could become qualified to receive and to retain the Divine knowledge of the supreme God.
The writer of the “Indian Philosophy,” Radhakrishnan, calls the early Hindus ‘the beast’ and the Divine wisdom of the Rishis ‘the god-making factory,’ and defines the Vedic religion as ‘the religion of the primitive man in the world of ghosts and goblins who were only satisfied with bloody sacrifices.’ He speaks of the teachings of the Upnishads and the Puranas as ‘speculation, myth, parables and heretical doctrines;’ criticizes the Brahm Sutra, and tells that the higher mysticism of Yog Darshan was mixed up with drug intoxication.
No true Hindu can utter such words for our Divine scriptures and the Vedic religion. They are all tamoguni writings.
His wiliness, antipathy towards our acharyas and his inclination towards Christianity.
Radhakrishnan criticizes Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who is the most adorable figure to millions of Hindus, and degrades the most respected rasik Saints of Vrindaban, Roop and Sanatan Goswami, by calling them ‘renegade converts to Islam and the outcasts from the Hindu society.’
He doesn’t stop over there. To justify the Aryan invasion fiction, he condemns the entire history of all the manvantars by telling that ‘Indian civilization is about 4,000 years old’ in Volume I, page 46, of his book the “Indian Philosophy”; and in Volume II, page 656, he draws a parallel between the description of God (brahm) of the Upnishads with the description of God in the Jewish and Christian religious book (the Bible).
It may be shocking for some people to know that the world renowned philosopher, bearing the prestige of having the seat of Vice President and the President of India for many years, had a leaning towards the western Christian faith and had anti-Vedic thoughts in his head, which he covered behind the big turban that showed the sign of Hinduism. But the fact is, that his own statements are the evidences of his own duplicitous character, when he writes,
“To love God is to take up the cross. The surrender of the soul to the heavenly Bridegroom… a metaphor not peculiar to India.” (Vol. I, p. 495)
“To take up the cross” is a pure Christian saying which means to do everything for the sake of Christianity. But taking the example of a general Christian proverb and befitting it with the occasion of maharas and with the unlimited depth of Gopis’ love for Krishn whose Divine sweetness surpassed all the forms of Divine Blissfulness, positively expresses the total anglicization of Radhakrishnan’s mind.
In the introduction of “The Principal Upanisads,” page 35, while describing the creation aspect, he compares the creation theory of the Upnishads with the Bible and the Iliad which was composed by a blind bard of Greece, Homer. He writes:
“Before creation all this was darkness shrouded in darkness, an impenetrable void or abyss of waters.” (Footnote on page 35 in “The Principal Upanishads”: Genesis 1.2, where the Spirit of God is said to move on the face of the waters, and the Puranic description of Vishnu as resting on the Serpent Infinite in the milky ocean. Homer’s Iliad speaks of Oceanos as ‘the source of all things’ including even the gods.)
In the Indian Philosophy Vol. I, page 103, he writes,
“The personal God brooding over the waters the Narayana resting on the eternal Ananta. It is the god of Genesis who says, Let there be, and there was. ”
Here again Radhakrishnan compares the Divine greatness of Gracious and kind God Narain (Vishnu) with the wrathful God of the Old Testament (Genesis).
At one place the Kathopnishad describes the ascending dependability of soul, maya and God.
The meaning of this verse is, “Maya (the original cosmic power called prakriti) is beyond the soul and is more powerful than the soul; and beyond maya is God in His personal form (purushah). Beyond the personality of God there is no other (Divine) matter. He is the final goal of a soul.” The key word in this verse is purushah which means ‘the Personal form of God.’ But, Radhakrishnan alters the meaning of the word purushah from ‘the Personality of God’ to ‘spirit,’ because the New Testament (John 4/24) describes God as a ‘spirit.’ Thus he translates it like this,
“Beyond the great self (atma) is the unmanifest (prakriti); beyond the unmanifest is the spirit. Beyond the spirit there is nothing. That is the end of the journey; that is the final goal.” (The Principal Upanisads, p. 625)
In the New Testament whenever Jesus Christ is saying something, the words “Verily, Verily” are often used in the beginning of his statement. Radhakrishnan adopts the same style in his writings while translating the Upnishads. For instance,
“Non existent, verily, was this in the beginning. Therefrom, Verily, was existence produced.” (p. 548)
The reason of his being famous as an Indian philosopher.
There were two reasons: (a) His political status as the President of India, and (b) the ignorance of the common people about the quality of his writings. Hindus have tremendous faith in the Gita, Bhagwat, Ramayan and the Upnishads etc. Just the thought, that Radhakrishnan had translated the Gita and the Upnishads, gave an air of respect to him. Moreover, in the political field, he was well known to Indians as being a good politician, and people had a regard for him. His oratory was well known, and his presentation of a subject before the students was promising. All these things promoted his name. His appointment to the Oxford University as a Professor of Philosophy gave him a further rise, and his political distinction promulgated his fame when he became the President of India. The notion, that ‘the President of India’ had written books on Indian philosophy and translated the Gita, augmented his fame as a philosopher, and thus, he came to be known as a world figure in philosophy.
But, it was all in the air. Had the Indians in common known what really he had written about the Rishis, the Vedas, Bhartiya scriptures, our most revered acharyas and Saints and about the Divine descensions, Bhagwan Ram and Krishn, the story would have been entirely different.
More than ninety-five percent of the Indian population reads the scriptures that are published in Indian languages, so they remain unaware of the biasedness of his writings (which were written in English only). Very few who take higher education in the Indian philosophy and religion happen to study such books as those of Radhakrishnan and other similar Indian or European writers. By the time they finish their course they accumulate so much philosophical confusion in their mind by studying the works of worldly and incompetent writers that most of them lose faith in the devotional aspects of Hindu religion and develop a kind of no-regard feeling for the Divinity of the scriptures, Jagadgurus and the great historical Masters as well. Thus, it doesn’t matter to them what Radhakrishnan or any other writer has written about the religion, philosophy or the culture of India.
Many people who regarded Radhakrishnan as a philosopher have simply praised him without even knowing what he has actually written in his books. Moreover, no one has ever written genuine comments on his writings, and the common people of India and also the people of the world don’t indulge in the intricacies of the philosophy. So, the dark side of his writings always remained hidden, and that was a plus point on his part that maintained his image as a great Indian philosopher, which, in fact, was a false perspective of his personality.
The writings of Radhakrishnan were more damaging to Bhartiya religion as compared to the European writers.
The derogatory writings of the western scholars, as initiated by the British, left a great impact on the Indian minds. But the reconfirmation of those western views by Radhakrishnan had much more damaging effects and confused millions of scholars of philosophy and religion around the world by giving them entirely wrong input about Hindu philosophy, Hindu scriptures and the Hindu religion. Just examine some of his mis-translations.
The writings of Radhakrishnan were more damaging to Bhartiya religion as compared to the European writers.
The derogatory writings of the western scholars, as initiated by the British, left a great impact on the Indian minds. But the reconfirmation of those western views by Radhakrishnan had much more damaging effects and confused millions of scholars of philosophy and religion around the world by giving them entirely wrong input about Hindu philosophy, Hindu scriptures and the Hindu religion. Just examine some of his mis-translations.
His Upnishad and Gita translations.
How wrongly he has translated the Upnishads, it can be seen from his translations of some of the most important verses.
In the Taittariya Upnishad,
(a) The true meaning is: “He (the Supreme God) manifested and made Himself omnipresent in the visual world.” But Radhakrishnan translates it as, “That (God) made itself a soul.”
(b) The true meaning is, “He (sah = the Supreme Personality of God Himself) is the Bliss; whoever perceives the Blissful God becomes blissful forever.” But Radhakrishnan translates it as, “That, verily, is the essence of existence (the existing mayic world). For, truly, on getting the essence, one becomes blissful.” (The Principal Upanisads, p. 549)
The word sah means, “the personal form of God” only. All the Jagadgurus have given detailed explanations on this particular verse, however, Radhakrishnan has his own way.
See his translations of the Gita.
The verse 15/6 “” tells about the existence of Krishn’s Divine abode (called the Golok), which is beyond maya and where the material sun, moon and fire do not exist (because it is Divinely illuminated). That ‘param dham,’ the eternal and absolute abode of Krishn, is such a Divine abode where God realized Saints go and (while perceiving the absolute Bliss) they live there forever and they never reincarnate in the material world. But Radhakrishnan gives his comment on this verse and says, “This verse refers to the Immutable Brahman which can be reached by ascetic practices.” (The Bhagavadgita, p. 328)
See more extracts from The Indian Philosophy Vol. I & II (IP/I,II) and the Principal Upanishads (PU).
Rigved has the impassionate utterances of the primitive poetic souls. (IP/I-71)
Atharvaved contains the pre-Vedic animist religion of spirits and ghosts. It gives an idea of demonology prevalent in the tribes of India. (PU-45;IP/I-121)
The earliest Vedic seers worshipped nature… the Vedic gods were stupidly self-centered… gods and ghosts governed the life of people. (IP/I-121)
The Upnishads (aranyakas) are the speculations of the hermits. Their teachings are lost in the jumbled chaos of puerile superstition. (IP/I-355)
He (Radhakrishnan) cannot accept Krishn of the Puranas. It was only the unknown author of the Gita who made Krishn famous through his writings and devised him to pose as God (brahm). (IP/I-496, 521)
Ram was only a good man. He was not God. His religion is polytheistic and external.
In the theism of Ramanuja, his city of God, the heaven, where the redeemed souls dwell is not much different from the usual description of the paradise of the popular imagination. (This is the description of Vaikunth in the words of Radhakrishnan.) (IP/I-482)
Shankara’s arid logic made his system unattractive, and Ramanuja’s story of the other world carries no weight. (IP/II-711)
In the Chaitanya religion the ultimate reality is Vishnu, and there is nothing much in their theory (achintya bhedabhed vad). (IP/II-761)
You can see that the great philosopher Radhakrishnan, introducing his skeptical views, despises the Divineness of the philosophy and the religion of Bharatvarsh.
He calls the Vedic Rishis as primitive poets whose impassionate utterances are the Rigved. He says that Atharvaved incorporates the demonology of primitive tribes; Vedic gods are stupidly self-centered; and the Upnishads are childish superstitions.
He criticizes the Divinity of Krishn, and says that (Bhagwan) Ram was only a good man, not God. He condemns the Divine greatness of Vaikunth by calling it the imagined heaven of Ramanujacharya and says that Ramanujacharya’s story of the other world (Vaikunth) carries no weight, and the dull logic of Shankaracharya makes his theory unattractive. He refutes the most impressive theory of the Vaishnavas of Vrindaban, the achintya bhedabhed vad, and thus, degrading the Hindu religion and philosophy by all means, he promotes only the western orientalists at each and every step of his writings.
A question arises: If the Upnishads are superstitious, Vedas are the primitive utterances, and the writings of acharyas carry no weight in his eyes, why then has he wasted his time writing on the Indian philosophy and the Upnishads; and why was he visiting the universities lecturing on the Indian philosophy? Was he trying to show how useless the Hindu religion is?
In fact, the Upnishads contain the Divine knowledge about God and God realization, and the Gita, Bhagwatam, Ramayan, Mahabharat and the Puranas are the Divine writings in which the Divine glory of the supreme descensions of God (Bhagwan Ram and Krishn) are described. The acharyas and the Jagadgurus revealed the simple path of divine-love-devotion to God for the good of mankind and established the greatness of bhakti (devotion to supreme God) that encouraged uncountable souls of the world to rise above the mayic dependency and proceed towards the fulfillment of their inner self that always longed for the Divine love of the supreme Beloved of their soul.
But, Radhakrishnan’s derogatory writings confused millions of good souls looking for the path to God. Covering all the aspects of Hindu religion (the scriptures, the writings of the acharyas and the descensions of God) he tried to implode the entire structure of Hinduism.
Collecting the wrongs of the European writers (who were appointed by the British) he decorated his writings with that. It created an opening for the other Hindu writers of the 20th century to follow the same wrong tradition of despising the Sanskrit literature, religion and the ancient history that was planned and designed by the British diplomats to ruin the culture, the religion and the history of Bharatvarsh.
Such was the effect of the writings of the western orientalists and Radhakrishnan etc., on the Indian minds that a great number of Hindu writers followed the same wrong trend, and, on the same guidelines, a number of books were written in the last eighty years.
source-http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org
The primacy of English education and the abundance of biased literature regarding the history and the Vedic religion affected the Hindu society a great deal. The wrong historical dates of Hindu dynasties and the notable personalities that they fixed, especially Buddh, Chandragupt and Ashok, became a guideline, and many Hindu writers followed the same wrong trend.
Certain great scholars and the so-called patriots of India also had profound effects of western education on their minds that held the feeling of lowness for Hindu culture, history and religion. They too collected the intellectual dirt of the western writers and used it in their writings.
Not knowing what were they doing, their writings like: “Ram was only a good man. He was not God.” betrayed and confused millions of Hindus and contempted the authentic writings of Ved Vyas which are the national treasures of India.
We will give you a few examples.
S. Radhakrishnan (1888-1975).
His brief biography: Born near Madras, South India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan showed his intelligence since childhood. He received a Master’s degree in Arts from Madras University. His essay on “Ethics of the Vedant” (as a partial fulfillment for his Master’s degree) was highly appreciated by professor A.G. Hogg as it contained the boldness of thought and the neglect for the personal form of God.
In 1909 he was appointed to the Department of Philosophy of the Madras Presidency College. In 1918 he was appointed as a professor of Philosophy at the University of Mysore and in 1921 he was appointed at the University of Calcutta. In 1926 he represented the University of Calcutta at the Congress of the Universities of the British Empire. From 1936 to 1939 he was appointed as a professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at Oxford University, in 1939 he was elected as ‘Fellow of the British Academy’, and from 1939 to 1948 he was Vice Chancellor of the Benares Hindu University. He was the Vice President of India from 1952 to 1962 and he also held the Office of the Chancellor, Delhi University from 1953 to 1962. In 1962 he was elected the President of India.
He was known as a world figure in philosophy. Renowned for his philosophical writings and lectures, he had collected enormous information in his brain by reading all the books of the European writers who wrote about Indian scriptures, religion and history. He was a bookworm, and had also extensively studied western philosophy. South Indian brahmans used to do elaborate Vedic rituals in their temple ceremonies and they are famous for their correct Sanskrit pronunciation. Radhakrishnan had a slighting attitude toward them since the beginning.
The derogative views of Radhakrishnan about Hindu religion and scriptures.
We have written about Jones, Max Müller and the other writers of that group. Radhakrishnan was not only their admirer, he was the promoter of their views which is clearly evident from his writings. His prejudicial attitude toward the Vedic religion and sneering opinions about the historical Divine Masters and their writings are seen in every book he wrote. See a few examples:
Indian Philosophy Vol. I, first print 1923, reprint 1996. Indian Philosophy Vol. II, first print 1927, reprint 1996. The Bhagavadgita first print 1948, reprint 1994. The Principal Upanisads first print 1953, reprint 1995.
(About the early Hindus of Vedic religion)
“Man’s never-ceasing effort to raise himself above the level of the beast to a moral and spiritual height finds a striking illustration in India.” (Indian Philosophy Vol. II, p. 766)
(About the Rigved)
“The process of god-making in the factory of man’s mind cannot be seen so clearly anywhere else as in the Rg-Veda.” (Indian Philosophy Vol. I, p. 73)
(About the Atharvaved)
“The religion of the Atharva-Veda is that of the primitive man, to whom the world is full of shapeless ghosts and spirits of death.”
“The world becomes crowded with goblins and gods, and the catastrophes of the world are traced to dissatisfied spirits… The terrific powers could only be appeased by bloody sacrifices, human and animal… The religion of the Atharva-Veda is an amalgam of Aryan and non-Aryan ideals.” (Vol. I, pp. 119, 120)
(About the Upnishads)
“The Upanisads contain the earliest records of Indian speculation… they contain much that is inconsistent and unscientific.” (Vol I, p. 138)
(About the Puranas)
“The Puranas are the religious poetry of the period of the schools, representing through myth and story, symbol and parable, the traditional view of God and man… They were composed with the purpose of undermining, if possible, the heretical doctrines of the times.” (Vol. II, p. 663)
(About the Yog Darshan of Patanjali)
“The popular cult of magic is mixed up with the religious scheme of salvation in the Yoga.”
“Sometimes psychic powers are also attained by the use of drugs and anaesthetics. Narcotic intoxication and ecstatic state are confused by the popular mind. The use of drugs is not recommended in Patanjali’s Yoga, though it is mentioned as one of the ways of obtaining perfections. Thus the habit of drug intoxication prevalent in primitive tribes was mixed up with the higher mysticism of the Yoga. Spells and austerities also help us in acquiring these powers.” (Vol II, pp. 366, 368)
(About Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and his disciples)
“The orthodox were much disturbed by his startling ways. He accepted converts from Islam freely… His disciples, Rupa and Sanatana, were renegade converts to Islam and outcasts from the Hindu society.” (Vol. II, p. 761)
The Vedas and the Upnishads were originally produced by the Rishis, then, about 5,000 years ago, they were all reproduced by Bhagwan Ved Vyas. The Upnishads contain the knowledge about God, maya, soul and His devotion which is further explained in the systematically written short sentences of the Brahm Sutra by Ved Vyas who also revealed all the Puranas. Sage Patanjali expounded the yogic theme of the Upnishads in his Yog Darshan which explains the eightfold path of yogic practice to fully eliminate the worldly desires and to purify the heart so that the yogi could become qualified to receive and to retain the Divine knowledge of the supreme God.
The writer of the “Indian Philosophy,” Radhakrishnan, calls the early Hindus ‘the beast’ and the Divine wisdom of the Rishis ‘the god-making factory,’ and defines the Vedic religion as ‘the religion of the primitive man in the world of ghosts and goblins who were only satisfied with bloody sacrifices.’ He speaks of the teachings of the Upnishads and the Puranas as ‘speculation, myth, parables and heretical doctrines;’ criticizes the Brahm Sutra, and tells that the higher mysticism of Yog Darshan was mixed up with drug intoxication.
No true Hindu can utter such words for our Divine scriptures and the Vedic religion. They are all tamoguni writings.
His wiliness, antipathy towards our acharyas and his inclination towards Christianity.
Radhakrishnan criticizes Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who is the most adorable figure to millions of Hindus, and degrades the most respected rasik Saints of Vrindaban, Roop and Sanatan Goswami, by calling them ‘renegade converts to Islam and the outcasts from the Hindu society.’
He doesn’t stop over there. To justify the Aryan invasion fiction, he condemns the entire history of all the manvantars by telling that ‘Indian civilization is about 4,000 years old’ in Volume I, page 46, of his book the “Indian Philosophy”; and in Volume II, page 656, he draws a parallel between the description of God (brahm) of the Upnishads with the description of God in the Jewish and Christian religious book (the Bible).
It may be shocking for some people to know that the world renowned philosopher, bearing the prestige of having the seat of Vice President and the President of India for many years, had a leaning towards the western Christian faith and had anti-Vedic thoughts in his head, which he covered behind the big turban that showed the sign of Hinduism. But the fact is, that his own statements are the evidences of his own duplicitous character, when he writes,
“To love God is to take up the cross. The surrender of the soul to the heavenly Bridegroom… a metaphor not peculiar to India.” (Vol. I, p. 495)
“To take up the cross” is a pure Christian saying which means to do everything for the sake of Christianity. But taking the example of a general Christian proverb and befitting it with the occasion of maharas and with the unlimited depth of Gopis’ love for Krishn whose Divine sweetness surpassed all the forms of Divine Blissfulness, positively expresses the total anglicization of Radhakrishnan’s mind.
In the introduction of “The Principal Upanisads,” page 35, while describing the creation aspect, he compares the creation theory of the Upnishads with the Bible and the Iliad which was composed by a blind bard of Greece, Homer. He writes:
“Before creation all this was darkness shrouded in darkness, an impenetrable void or abyss of waters.” (Footnote on page 35 in “The Principal Upanishads”: Genesis 1.2, where the Spirit of God is said to move on the face of the waters, and the Puranic description of Vishnu as resting on the Serpent Infinite in the milky ocean. Homer’s Iliad speaks of Oceanos as ‘the source of all things’ including even the gods.)
In the Indian Philosophy Vol. I, page 103, he writes,
“The personal God brooding over the waters the Narayana resting on the eternal Ananta. It is the god of Genesis who says, Let there be, and there was. ”
Here again Radhakrishnan compares the Divine greatness of Gracious and kind God Narain (Vishnu) with the wrathful God of the Old Testament (Genesis).
At one place the Kathopnishad describes the ascending dependability of soul, maya and God.
The meaning of this verse is, “Maya (the original cosmic power called prakriti) is beyond the soul and is more powerful than the soul; and beyond maya is God in His personal form (purushah). Beyond the personality of God there is no other (Divine) matter. He is the final goal of a soul.” The key word in this verse is purushah which means ‘the Personal form of God.’ But, Radhakrishnan alters the meaning of the word purushah from ‘the Personality of God’ to ‘spirit,’ because the New Testament (John 4/24) describes God as a ‘spirit.’ Thus he translates it like this,
“Beyond the great self (atma) is the unmanifest (prakriti); beyond the unmanifest is the spirit. Beyond the spirit there is nothing. That is the end of the journey; that is the final goal.” (The Principal Upanisads, p. 625)
In the New Testament whenever Jesus Christ is saying something, the words “Verily, Verily” are often used in the beginning of his statement. Radhakrishnan adopts the same style in his writings while translating the Upnishads. For instance,
“Non existent, verily, was this in the beginning. Therefrom, Verily, was existence produced.” (p. 548)
The reason of his being famous as an Indian philosopher.
There were two reasons: (a) His political status as the President of India, and (b) the ignorance of the common people about the quality of his writings. Hindus have tremendous faith in the Gita, Bhagwat, Ramayan and the Upnishads etc. Just the thought, that Radhakrishnan had translated the Gita and the Upnishads, gave an air of respect to him. Moreover, in the political field, he was well known to Indians as being a good politician, and people had a regard for him. His oratory was well known, and his presentation of a subject before the students was promising. All these things promoted his name. His appointment to the Oxford University as a Professor of Philosophy gave him a further rise, and his political distinction promulgated his fame when he became the President of India. The notion, that ‘the President of India’ had written books on Indian philosophy and translated the Gita, augmented his fame as a philosopher, and thus, he came to be known as a world figure in philosophy.
But, it was all in the air. Had the Indians in common known what really he had written about the Rishis, the Vedas, Bhartiya scriptures, our most revered acharyas and Saints and about the Divine descensions, Bhagwan Ram and Krishn, the story would have been entirely different.
More than ninety-five percent of the Indian population reads the scriptures that are published in Indian languages, so they remain unaware of the biasedness of his writings (which were written in English only). Very few who take higher education in the Indian philosophy and religion happen to study such books as those of Radhakrishnan and other similar Indian or European writers. By the time they finish their course they accumulate so much philosophical confusion in their mind by studying the works of worldly and incompetent writers that most of them lose faith in the devotional aspects of Hindu religion and develop a kind of no-regard feeling for the Divinity of the scriptures, Jagadgurus and the great historical Masters as well. Thus, it doesn’t matter to them what Radhakrishnan or any other writer has written about the religion, philosophy or the culture of India.
Many people who regarded Radhakrishnan as a philosopher have simply praised him without even knowing what he has actually written in his books. Moreover, no one has ever written genuine comments on his writings, and the common people of India and also the people of the world don’t indulge in the intricacies of the philosophy. So, the dark side of his writings always remained hidden, and that was a plus point on his part that maintained his image as a great Indian philosopher, which, in fact, was a false perspective of his personality.
The writings of Radhakrishnan were more damaging to Bhartiya religion as compared to the European writers.
The derogatory writings of the western scholars, as initiated by the British, left a great impact on the Indian minds. But the reconfirmation of those western views by Radhakrishnan had much more damaging effects and confused millions of scholars of philosophy and religion around the world by giving them entirely wrong input about Hindu philosophy, Hindu scriptures and the Hindu religion. Just examine some of his mis-translations.
The writings of Radhakrishnan were more damaging to Bhartiya religion as compared to the European writers.
The derogatory writings of the western scholars, as initiated by the British, left a great impact on the Indian minds. But the reconfirmation of those western views by Radhakrishnan had much more damaging effects and confused millions of scholars of philosophy and religion around the world by giving them entirely wrong input about Hindu philosophy, Hindu scriptures and the Hindu religion. Just examine some of his mis-translations.
His Upnishad and Gita translations.
How wrongly he has translated the Upnishads, it can be seen from his translations of some of the most important verses.
In the Taittariya Upnishad,
(a) The true meaning is: “He (the Supreme God) manifested and made Himself omnipresent in the visual world.” But Radhakrishnan translates it as, “That (God) made itself a soul.”
(b) The true meaning is, “He (sah = the Supreme Personality of God Himself) is the Bliss; whoever perceives the Blissful God becomes blissful forever.” But Radhakrishnan translates it as, “That, verily, is the essence of existence (the existing mayic world). For, truly, on getting the essence, one becomes blissful.” (The Principal Upanisads, p. 549)
The word sah means, “the personal form of God” only. All the Jagadgurus have given detailed explanations on this particular verse, however, Radhakrishnan has his own way.
See his translations of the Gita.
The verse 15/6 “” tells about the existence of Krishn’s Divine abode (called the Golok), which is beyond maya and where the material sun, moon and fire do not exist (because it is Divinely illuminated). That ‘param dham,’ the eternal and absolute abode of Krishn, is such a Divine abode where God realized Saints go and (while perceiving the absolute Bliss) they live there forever and they never reincarnate in the material world. But Radhakrishnan gives his comment on this verse and says, “This verse refers to the Immutable Brahman which can be reached by ascetic practices.” (The Bhagavadgita, p. 328)
See more extracts from The Indian Philosophy Vol. I & II (IP/I,II) and the Principal Upanishads (PU).
Rigved has the impassionate utterances of the primitive poetic souls. (IP/I-71)
Atharvaved contains the pre-Vedic animist religion of spirits and ghosts. It gives an idea of demonology prevalent in the tribes of India. (PU-45;IP/I-121)
The earliest Vedic seers worshipped nature… the Vedic gods were stupidly self-centered… gods and ghosts governed the life of people. (IP/I-121)
The Upnishads (aranyakas) are the speculations of the hermits. Their teachings are lost in the jumbled chaos of puerile superstition. (IP/I-355)
He (Radhakrishnan) cannot accept Krishn of the Puranas. It was only the unknown author of the Gita who made Krishn famous through his writings and devised him to pose as God (brahm). (IP/I-496, 521)
Ram was only a good man. He was not God. His religion is polytheistic and external.
In the theism of Ramanuja, his city of God, the heaven, where the redeemed souls dwell is not much different from the usual description of the paradise of the popular imagination. (This is the description of Vaikunth in the words of Radhakrishnan.) (IP/I-482)
Shankara’s arid logic made his system unattractive, and Ramanuja’s story of the other world carries no weight. (IP/II-711)
In the Chaitanya religion the ultimate reality is Vishnu, and there is nothing much in their theory (achintya bhedabhed vad). (IP/II-761)
You can see that the great philosopher Radhakrishnan, introducing his skeptical views, despises the Divineness of the philosophy and the religion of Bharatvarsh.
He calls the Vedic Rishis as primitive poets whose impassionate utterances are the Rigved. He says that Atharvaved incorporates the demonology of primitive tribes; Vedic gods are stupidly self-centered; and the Upnishads are childish superstitions.
He criticizes the Divinity of Krishn, and says that (Bhagwan) Ram was only a good man, not God. He condemns the Divine greatness of Vaikunth by calling it the imagined heaven of Ramanujacharya and says that Ramanujacharya’s story of the other world (Vaikunth) carries no weight, and the dull logic of Shankaracharya makes his theory unattractive. He refutes the most impressive theory of the Vaishnavas of Vrindaban, the achintya bhedabhed vad, and thus, degrading the Hindu religion and philosophy by all means, he promotes only the western orientalists at each and every step of his writings.
A question arises: If the Upnishads are superstitious, Vedas are the primitive utterances, and the writings of acharyas carry no weight in his eyes, why then has he wasted his time writing on the Indian philosophy and the Upnishads; and why was he visiting the universities lecturing on the Indian philosophy? Was he trying to show how useless the Hindu religion is?
In fact, the Upnishads contain the Divine knowledge about God and God realization, and the Gita, Bhagwatam, Ramayan, Mahabharat and the Puranas are the Divine writings in which the Divine glory of the supreme descensions of God (Bhagwan Ram and Krishn) are described. The acharyas and the Jagadgurus revealed the simple path of divine-love-devotion to God for the good of mankind and established the greatness of bhakti (devotion to supreme God) that encouraged uncountable souls of the world to rise above the mayic dependency and proceed towards the fulfillment of their inner self that always longed for the Divine love of the supreme Beloved of their soul.
But, Radhakrishnan’s derogatory writings confused millions of good souls looking for the path to God. Covering all the aspects of Hindu religion (the scriptures, the writings of the acharyas and the descensions of God) he tried to implode the entire structure of Hinduism.
Collecting the wrongs of the European writers (who were appointed by the British) he decorated his writings with that. It created an opening for the other Hindu writers of the 20th century to follow the same wrong tradition of despising the Sanskrit literature, religion and the ancient history that was planned and designed by the British diplomats to ruin the culture, the religion and the history of Bharatvarsh.
Such was the effect of the writings of the western orientalists and Radhakrishnan etc., on the Indian minds that a great number of Hindu writers followed the same wrong trend, and, on the same guidelines, a number of books were written in the last eighty years.
source-http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org
Wednesday, August 31, 2011
Ashoka Pillar
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Pillars of Ashoka
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Ashoka Pillar (disambiguation).
View of the Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali.
The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, erected or at least inscribed by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars but only nineteen survive with inscriptions. Many are preserved in a fragmentary state.[1] Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected.[2]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Overview
* 2 Description of the pillars
o 2.1 Pillar at Vaishali
o 2.2 Pillar at Allahabad
o 2.3 Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh
o 2.4 Erecting the Pillars
o 2.5 Languages and script
* 3 History of discovery
* 4 Background of construction
o 4.1 Alternative theories
* 5 Notes
* 6 See also
* 7 External links
[edit] Overview
The Ashokan pillar at Lumbini
The columns that bear the edicts of Ashoka include the two pillars at Delhi (originally located at Meerut and Topra in Haryana and were brought to Delhi during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq in 1356), the pillar at Allahabad (is believed as originally located at Kaushambi) and the pillars found at Lauriya-Areraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (with lion capital), Sankissa, Sanchi and Sarnath. The columns bearing dedicatory inscriptions were found in Lumbini and Nigalisagar. The pillars found at Vaishali (with single lion capital) and Rampurva (with bull capital) do not bear any edict.[3]
These pillars were carved in two types of stone. Some were of the spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff-colored fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in the Chunar near Varanasi. The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen from the same region. It would therefore seem that stone was transported from Mathura and Chunar to the various sites where the pillars have been found, and there was cut and carved by craftsmen[4] The pillars have four component parts. The shafts are always plain and smooth, circular in cross-section, slightly tapering upwards and always chiselled out of a single piece of stone. The capitals have the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell formed of lotus petals. The abaci are of two types: square and plain and circular and decorated and these are of different proportions. The crowning animals are either seated or standing, always in the round and chiseled as a single piece with the abaci.[3])
[edit] Description of the pillars
The most celebrated pillar is the pillar with the lion capital at Sarnath. Here, four lions are seated back to back. The pillar at Sanchi also has a similar lion capital. There are two pillars at Rampurva, one with bull and the other with lion as crowning animal. The pillar at Sankissa has an elephant as crowning animal. Five of the pillars of Ashoka (two at Rampurva, one each at Vaishali, Lauriya-Areraj and Lauryia-Nandangarh were possibly marked the course of the ancient Royal highway from Patliputra to the Nepal valley.
[edit] Pillar at Vaishali
Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali.
There exists in Vaishali, a pillar with a single lion capital erected by Ashoka. The location of this pillar is contiguous to the site where a Buddhist monastery and a sacred coronation tank stood. Excavations are still underway and several stupas suggesting a far flung campus for the monastery have been discovered. This pillar is different from the earlier Ashokan pillars because it has only one lion capital. The lion faces north, the direction Buddha took on his last voyage.[5] Identification of the site for excavation in 1969 was aided by the fact that this pillar still jutted out of the soil. More such pillars exist in this greater area but they are all devoid of the capital.
[edit] Pillar at Allahabad
In Allahabad there is a pillar with inscriptions from Ashoka and later inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta and Jehangir. The pillar is located inside the Allahabad Fort, built during the 16th century by Akbar at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. As the fort is occupied by the Indian Army it is essentially closed to the public and special permission is required to see the pillar. It is generally assumed that the pillar was first erected at Kaushambi an ancient town some 30 kilometres west of Allahabad that was the capital of the Koshala kingdom. The Ashokan inscription is in Brahmi and is dated around 232 BC. A later inscription attributed to the second king of the Gupta empire, Samudragupta, is in the more refined Gupta script, a later version of Brahmi, and is dated to around 375 CE. This inscription lists the extent of the empire that Samudragupta built during his long reign. He had already been king for forty years at that time and would rule for another five. A still later inscription in Persian is from the Mughal emperor Jahangir. The Akbar Fort also houses the Akshay Vat, an Indian fig tree of great antiquity. The Ramayana refers to this tree under which Lord Rama is supposed to have prayed while on exile.
[edit] Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh
The column at Lauriya-Nandangarh, 23 km from Bettiah in West Champaran district, Bihar has single lion capital. The hump and the hind legs of the lion project beyond the abacus.[3] The pillar at Lauriya-Areraj in East Champaran district, Bihar is presently devoid of any capital.
[edit] Erecting the Pillars
The Pillars of Ashoka may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25 ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25 ton obelisk.[6][7]
[edit] Languages and script
Brahmi inscription on a fragment of the 6th Pillar of Ashoka
Alexander Cunningham, one of the first to study the inscriptions on the pillars, remarks that they are written in eastern, middle and western Prakrits which he calls "the Punjabi or north-western dialect, the Ujjeni or middle dialect, and the Magadhi or eastern dialect."[8] They are written in the Brahmi script.
[edit] History of discovery
The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16 century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. Initially he assumed that from the way it glowed that it was made of brass, but on closer examination he realized it was made of highly polished sandstone with upright script that resembled a form of Greek. In the 1830s James Prinsep began to decipher them with the help of Captain Edward Smith and George Turnour. They determined that the script referred to King Piyadasi which was also the epithet of an Indian ruler known as Ashoka who came to the throne 218 years after Buddha's enlightenment. Scholars have since found 150 of Ashoka's inscriptions, carved into the face of rocks or on stone pillars marking out a domain that stretched across northern India and south below the central plateau of the Deccan. These pillars were placed in strategic sites near border cities and trade routes.
[edit] Background of construction
Ashoka ascended to the throne in 269 BCE inheriting the empire founded by his grandfather Chandragupta Maurya. Ashoka was reputedly a tyrant at the outset of his reign. Eight years after his accession he campaigned in Kalinga where in his own words, "a hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and as many as that perished..." After this event Ashoka converted to Buddhism in remorse for the loss of life. Buddhism didn't become a state religion but with Ashoka's support it spread rapidly. The inscriptions on the pillars described edicts about morality based on Buddhist tenets. Legend has it that Ashoka built 84,000 Stupas commemorating the events and relics of Buddha's life. Some of these Stupas contained networks of walls containing the hub spokes and rim of a wheel, while others contained interior walls in a swastika shape. The wheel represents the sun, time, and Buddhist law (the wheel of law, or dharmachakra), while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.[9][10]
[edit] Alternative theories
Ranajit Pal suggests that the pillar, now near Delhi, which was brought from Topra in Ambala was one of the lost altars of Alexander.[11]
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Harry Falk, Asokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-Book with Bibliography (Mainz am Rhein, 2006).
2. ^ http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html
3. ^ a b c Mahajan V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). Ancient India, S.Chand & Company, New Delhi, ISBN 81 219 0887 6, pp.350-3
4. ^ Thapar, Romila (2001). Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryan, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN 019 564445 X, pp.267-70
5. ^ Bihar Tourism
6. ^ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/egypt/dispatches/990827.html
7. ^ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 56-57
8. ^ Inscriptions of Asoka by Alexander Cunningham, Eugen Hultzsch. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. Calcutta: 1877
9. ^ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ancient India: Land Of Mystery (1994) p. 84-85,94-97
10. ^ Oliphant, Margaret "The Atlas Of The Ancient World" 1992 p. 156-7
11. ^ Ranajit Pal, "An Altar of Alexander Now Standing Near Delhi", Scholia, vol. 15, p. 78-101.
[edit] See also
* Mauryan art
* Image of a standing pillar of Ashoka
* Ashoka pillar in Southern India
* Ashoka's Major Rock Edict
* Lion Capital of Asoka
* National Emblem of India
* National Flag of India
* Ashoka Chakra
* List of megalithic sites
[edit] External links
Archaeological Survey of India [1]
British Museum, collections online
* [2]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ashoka pillars
* For Pictures of the famous original "Lion Capital of Ashoka" preserved at the Sarnath Museum which has been adopted as the "National Emblem of India" and the Ashoka Chakra (Wheel) from which has been placed in the center of the "National Flag of India" - See "lioncapital" from Columbia University Website, New York, USA
AshokStambhaThailand.jpg
Ashoka pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing Dharma Chakra prevails over beasts (lion). A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath which was destroyed during Turk invasions of India missing the larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions, now preserved at Sarnath Museum has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the smaller Chakra in the base on which the lions are standing has become a part of the National Flag of India.
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Pillars of Ashoka
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Ashoka Pillar (disambiguation).
View of the Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali.
The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, erected or at least inscribed by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars but only nineteen survive with inscriptions. Many are preserved in a fragmentary state.[1] Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected.[2]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Overview
* 2 Description of the pillars
o 2.1 Pillar at Vaishali
o 2.2 Pillar at Allahabad
o 2.3 Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh
o 2.4 Erecting the Pillars
o 2.5 Languages and script
* 3 History of discovery
* 4 Background of construction
o 4.1 Alternative theories
* 5 Notes
* 6 See also
* 7 External links
[edit] Overview
The Ashokan pillar at Lumbini
The columns that bear the edicts of Ashoka include the two pillars at Delhi (originally located at Meerut and Topra in Haryana and were brought to Delhi during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq in 1356), the pillar at Allahabad (is believed as originally located at Kaushambi) and the pillars found at Lauriya-Areraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (with lion capital), Sankissa, Sanchi and Sarnath. The columns bearing dedicatory inscriptions were found in Lumbini and Nigalisagar. The pillars found at Vaishali (with single lion capital) and Rampurva (with bull capital) do not bear any edict.[3]
These pillars were carved in two types of stone. Some were of the spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff-colored fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in the Chunar near Varanasi. The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen from the same region. It would therefore seem that stone was transported from Mathura and Chunar to the various sites where the pillars have been found, and there was cut and carved by craftsmen[4] The pillars have four component parts. The shafts are always plain and smooth, circular in cross-section, slightly tapering upwards and always chiselled out of a single piece of stone. The capitals have the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell formed of lotus petals. The abaci are of two types: square and plain and circular and decorated and these are of different proportions. The crowning animals are either seated or standing, always in the round and chiseled as a single piece with the abaci.[3])
[edit] Description of the pillars
The most celebrated pillar is the pillar with the lion capital at Sarnath. Here, four lions are seated back to back. The pillar at Sanchi also has a similar lion capital. There are two pillars at Rampurva, one with bull and the other with lion as crowning animal. The pillar at Sankissa has an elephant as crowning animal. Five of the pillars of Ashoka (two at Rampurva, one each at Vaishali, Lauriya-Areraj and Lauryia-Nandangarh were possibly marked the course of the ancient Royal highway from Patliputra to the Nepal valley.
[edit] Pillar at Vaishali
Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali.
There exists in Vaishali, a pillar with a single lion capital erected by Ashoka. The location of this pillar is contiguous to the site where a Buddhist monastery and a sacred coronation tank stood. Excavations are still underway and several stupas suggesting a far flung campus for the monastery have been discovered. This pillar is different from the earlier Ashokan pillars because it has only one lion capital. The lion faces north, the direction Buddha took on his last voyage.[5] Identification of the site for excavation in 1969 was aided by the fact that this pillar still jutted out of the soil. More such pillars exist in this greater area but they are all devoid of the capital.
[edit] Pillar at Allahabad
In Allahabad there is a pillar with inscriptions from Ashoka and later inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta and Jehangir. The pillar is located inside the Allahabad Fort, built during the 16th century by Akbar at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. As the fort is occupied by the Indian Army it is essentially closed to the public and special permission is required to see the pillar. It is generally assumed that the pillar was first erected at Kaushambi an ancient town some 30 kilometres west of Allahabad that was the capital of the Koshala kingdom. The Ashokan inscription is in Brahmi and is dated around 232 BC. A later inscription attributed to the second king of the Gupta empire, Samudragupta, is in the more refined Gupta script, a later version of Brahmi, and is dated to around 375 CE. This inscription lists the extent of the empire that Samudragupta built during his long reign. He had already been king for forty years at that time and would rule for another five. A still later inscription in Persian is from the Mughal emperor Jahangir. The Akbar Fort also houses the Akshay Vat, an Indian fig tree of great antiquity. The Ramayana refers to this tree under which Lord Rama is supposed to have prayed while on exile.
[edit] Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh
The column at Lauriya-Nandangarh, 23 km from Bettiah in West Champaran district, Bihar has single lion capital. The hump and the hind legs of the lion project beyond the abacus.[3] The pillar at Lauriya-Areraj in East Champaran district, Bihar is presently devoid of any capital.
[edit] Erecting the Pillars
The Pillars of Ashoka may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25 ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25 ton obelisk.[6][7]
[edit] Languages and script
Brahmi inscription on a fragment of the 6th Pillar of Ashoka
Alexander Cunningham, one of the first to study the inscriptions on the pillars, remarks that they are written in eastern, middle and western Prakrits which he calls "the Punjabi or north-western dialect, the Ujjeni or middle dialect, and the Magadhi or eastern dialect."[8] They are written in the Brahmi script.
[edit] History of discovery
The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16 century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. Initially he assumed that from the way it glowed that it was made of brass, but on closer examination he realized it was made of highly polished sandstone with upright script that resembled a form of Greek. In the 1830s James Prinsep began to decipher them with the help of Captain Edward Smith and George Turnour. They determined that the script referred to King Piyadasi which was also the epithet of an Indian ruler known as Ashoka who came to the throne 218 years after Buddha's enlightenment. Scholars have since found 150 of Ashoka's inscriptions, carved into the face of rocks or on stone pillars marking out a domain that stretched across northern India and south below the central plateau of the Deccan. These pillars were placed in strategic sites near border cities and trade routes.
[edit] Background of construction
Ashoka ascended to the throne in 269 BCE inheriting the empire founded by his grandfather Chandragupta Maurya. Ashoka was reputedly a tyrant at the outset of his reign. Eight years after his accession he campaigned in Kalinga where in his own words, "a hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and as many as that perished..." After this event Ashoka converted to Buddhism in remorse for the loss of life. Buddhism didn't become a state religion but with Ashoka's support it spread rapidly. The inscriptions on the pillars described edicts about morality based on Buddhist tenets. Legend has it that Ashoka built 84,000 Stupas commemorating the events and relics of Buddha's life. Some of these Stupas contained networks of walls containing the hub spokes and rim of a wheel, while others contained interior walls in a swastika shape. The wheel represents the sun, time, and Buddhist law (the wheel of law, or dharmachakra), while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.[9][10]
[edit] Alternative theories
Ranajit Pal suggests that the pillar, now near Delhi, which was brought from Topra in Ambala was one of the lost altars of Alexander.[11]
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Harry Falk, Asokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-Book with Bibliography (Mainz am Rhein, 2006).
2. ^ http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html
3. ^ a b c Mahajan V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). Ancient India, S.Chand & Company, New Delhi, ISBN 81 219 0887 6, pp.350-3
4. ^ Thapar, Romila (2001). Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryan, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN 019 564445 X, pp.267-70
5. ^ Bihar Tourism
6. ^ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/egypt/dispatches/990827.html
7. ^ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 56-57
8. ^ Inscriptions of Asoka by Alexander Cunningham, Eugen Hultzsch. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. Calcutta: 1877
9. ^ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ancient India: Land Of Mystery (1994) p. 84-85,94-97
10. ^ Oliphant, Margaret "The Atlas Of The Ancient World" 1992 p. 156-7
11. ^ Ranajit Pal, "An Altar of Alexander Now Standing Near Delhi", Scholia, vol. 15, p. 78-101.
[edit] See also
* Mauryan art
* Image of a standing pillar of Ashoka
* Ashoka pillar in Southern India
* Ashoka's Major Rock Edict
* Lion Capital of Asoka
* National Emblem of India
* National Flag of India
* Ashoka Chakra
* List of megalithic sites
[edit] External links
Archaeological Survey of India [1]
British Museum, collections online
* [2]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ashoka pillars
* For Pictures of the famous original "Lion Capital of Ashoka" preserved at the Sarnath Museum which has been adopted as the "National Emblem of India" and the Ashoka Chakra (Wheel) from which has been placed in the center of the "National Flag of India" - See "lioncapital" from Columbia University Website, New York, USA
AshokStambhaThailand.jpg
Ashoka pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing Dharma Chakra prevails over beasts (lion). A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath which was destroyed during Turk invasions of India missing the larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions, now preserved at Sarnath Museum has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the smaller Chakra in the base on which the lions are standing has become a part of the National Flag of India.
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Edicts of Ashoka
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Distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka[1]
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 269 BCE to 231 BCE. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history. According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.
These inscriptions proclaim Ashoka's beliefs in the Buddhist concept of dharma and his efforts to develop the dharma throughout his kingdom. Although Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts, rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism.
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" and "King Priya-darshi." The identification of King Priya-darshi with Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1837. The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were written in the Magadhi language, using the Brahmi script. In the western part of India, the language used is closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharoshthi script, one extract of Edict 13 in the Greek language, and one bilingual edict written in Greek and Aramaic.These edicts were decodified by British archeologist and historian James Prinsep.
The inscriptions revolve around a few recurring themes: Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Ashoka's conversion
* 2 Ashoka's proselytism
o 2.1 Proselytism beyond India
o 2.2 Proselytism within Ashoka's territories
+ 2.2.1 Greek communities
+ 2.2.2 Other communities
* 3 Moral precepts
o 3.1 Right behaviour
o 3.2 Benevolence
o 3.3 Kindness to prisoners
o 3.4 Respect for animal life
* 4 Religious precepts
o 4.1 Buddhism
o 4.2 Belief in a next world
o 4.3 Religious exchange
* 5 Social and animal welfare
o 5.1 Medicinal treatments
o 5.2 Roadside facilities
o 5.3 Officers of the faith
* 6 Inscriptions
* 7 Estampages of Girnar Edicts
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 External links
[edit] Ashoka's conversion
Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstones. British Museum.
Ashoka explains that he converted to Buddhism out of remorse for his conquest of the Kalingas around 264 BCE in eastern India (near the present-day state of Orissa):
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
Following his conversion, Ashoka traveled throughout India and visited sacred Buddhist locations, where he would typically erect a pillar bearing his inscriptions:
Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, visited this place and worshipped because here the Buddha, the sage of the Sakyans, was born. He had a stone figure and a pillar set up and because the Lord was born here, the village of Lumbini was exempted from tax and required to pay only one eighth of the produce. Minor Pillar Edict Nb1 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Ashoka's proselytism
In order to propagate the Buddhist faith, Ashoka explains he sent emissaries to the Hellenistic kings as far as the Mediterranean, and to the peoples throughout India, claiming they were all converted to the Dharma as a result. He names the Greek rulers of the time, inheritors of the conquest of Alexander the Great, from Bactria to as far as Greece and North Africa, displaying an amazingly clear grasp of the political situation at the time.
[edit] Proselytism beyond India
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE)
Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
The distance of 600 yojanas (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponds to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).
* Amtiyoko refers to Antiochus II Theos of Syria (261–246 BC), who controlled the Seleucid Empire from Syria to Bactria, in the east from 305 to 250 BC, and was therefore a direct neighbor of Ashoka.
* Turamaye refers to Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE), king of the dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a former general of Alexander the Great, in Egypt.
* Amtikini refers to Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedon (278–239 BC)
* Maka refers to Magas of Cyrene (300–258 BC)
* Alikasudaro refers to Alexander II of Epirus (272–258 BC).
In the Gandhari original Antiochos is referred as "Amtiyoko nama Yona-raja" (lit. "The Greek king by the name of Antiokos"), beyond whom live the four other kings: "param ca tena Atiyokena cature 4 rajani Turamaye nama Amtikini nama Maka nama Alikasudaro nama" (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the name of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, the name Alexander" [1]
It is not clear in Hellenic records whether these emissaries were actually received, or had any influence on the Hellenic world. Some scholars, however, point to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world from that time, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria). The pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae may have drawn inspiration for its ascetic lifestyle from contact with Buddhist monasticism. Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Wheel of the Law (Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India"). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that "It was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established" (Robert Linssen).
Ashoka’s proselytism also expanded to the south of the Indian subcontinent:
* The Cholas and Pandyas were south Indian peoples living outside Asoka's empire.
* Tamraparni is the old name of Sri Lanka. Tamraparniya is also the name of Theravada School from Sri Lanka.
[edit] Proselytism within Ashoka's territories
Inside India proper, in the realm of Ashoka, many different populations were the object of the King’s proselytism:
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Greek communities
Greek communities lived in the northwest of the Mauryan empire, in the region of Pakistan, notably ancient Gandhara near the Pakistani capital of Islamabad, and in southern Afghanistan in the region of Gedrosia, following the conquest and the colonization efforts of Alexander the Great around 323 BC. These communities therefore seem to have been still significant during the reign of Ashoka. A notable mention references aspects of Greek society.
There is no country, except among the Greeks, where these two groups, Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and there is no country where people are not devoted to one or another religion. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
Bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar (Shar-i-kuna). Kabul Museum.
Two edicts in Afghanistan have been found with Greek inscriptions, one of these being a bilingual edict in Greek language and Aramaic. This edict, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "Piety" (using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community:
Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King
Piodasses (one of the titles of Ashoka: Piyadassi or Priyadarsi, "He who is the beloved of the Gods and who regards
everyone amiably") made known (the doctrine of)
Piety (Greek:εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made
men more pious, and everything thrives throughout
the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing)
living beings, and other men and those who (are)
huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted
from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they
have ceased from their intemperance as was in their
power; and obedient to their father and mother and to
the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future,
by so acting on every occasion, they will live better
and more happily. (Trans. by G. P. Carratelli [2])
[edit] Other communities
* Kambojas are a people of Central Asian origin who had settled first in Arachosia and Drangiana (today’s southern Afghanistan), and then in the northwestern Indian subcontinent in Sindhu, Gujarat and Sauvira.
* The Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas are other people under Ashoka’s rule.
[edit] Moral precepts
Edicts of Ashoka I-XI in Shahbazgarhi, Peshawar
The Dharma preached by Ashoka is explained mainly in term of moral precepts, based on the doing of good deeds, respect for others, generosity and purity.
[edit] Right behaviour
Dharma is good, but what constitutes Dharma? (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. Pilar Edict Nb2 (S. Dharmika)
And noble deeds of Dharma and the practice of Dharma consist of having kindness, generosity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness increase among the people. Rock Pilar Nb7 (S. Dharmika)
[edit] Benevolence
Ashokas Dharma meant that: he used his power to try to make life better for his people and he also tried to change the way people thought and lived
[edit] Kindness to prisoners
Ashoka showed great concern for fairness in the exercise of Justice, caution and tolerance in the application of sentences, and regularly pardoned prisoners.
It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law and uniformity in sentencing. I even go this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who have been tried and sentenced to death. During this time their relatives can make appeals to have the prisoners' lives spared. If there is none to appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can give gifts in order to make merit for the next world, or observe fasts. Pilar Edict Nb4 (S. Dhammika)
In the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have been given amnesty on twenty-five occasions. Pilar Edict Nb5 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Respect for animal life
The Mauryan empire was the first Indian empire to unify the country and it had a clear-cut policy of exploiting as well as protecting natural resources with specific officials tasked with protection duty. When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was perhaps the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife. Reference to these can be seen inscribed on the stone edicts.[3]
Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected – parrots, mainas, //aruna//, ruddy geese, wild ducks, //nandimukhas, gelatas//, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, //vedareyaka//, //gangapuputaka//, //sankiya// fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, //okapinda//, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible. Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another.
—Edict on Fifth Pillar
The edicts also proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:
Our king killed very few animals.
—Edict on Fifth Pillar[3]
Ashoka did not completely prohibit the killing of animals; he prohibited gratuitous killings (such as for sacrifices)[citation needed], he advocated restraint in the number that had to be killed for consumption, protected some of them, and in general condemned violent acts against animals, such as castration.
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices then freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[3]
[edit] Religious precepts
[edit] Buddhism
Beyond spreading the moral virtues of Buddhism, Ashoka also insisted that the word of the Buddha be read and followed, in particular in monastic circles (the Sanghas):
Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them good health and happiness, speaks thus: You know, reverend sirs, how great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and Sangha is. Whatever, reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is well-spoken. Minor Rock Edict Nb3 (S. Dhammika)
These Dhamma texts – Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech – these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember. Likewise the laymen and laywomen. Minor Rock Edict Nb3 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Belief in a next world
One benefits in this world and gains great merit in the next by giving the gift of the Dhamma. Rock Edict Nb11 (S. Dhammika)
Happiness in this world and the next is difficult to obtain without much love for the Dhamma, much self-examination, much respect, much fear (of evil), and much enthusiasm. Pilar Edict Nb1 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Religious exchange
Far from being sectarian, Ashoka, based on a belief that all religions shared a common, positive essence, encouraged tolerance and understanding of other religions.
All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. Rock Edict Nb7 (S. Dhammika)
Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. Rock Edict Nb1 (S. Dhammika)
Contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions. Rock Edict Nb12 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Social and animal welfare
According to the edicts, Ashoka took great care of the welfare of his subjects (human and animal), and those beyond his borders, spreading the use of medicinal treatments, improving roadside facilities for more comfortable travel, and establishing "officers of the faith" throughout his territories to survey the welfare of the population and the propagation of the Dharma.
[edit] Medicinal treatments
Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi’s domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals. Rock Edict Nb2 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Roadside facilities
Along roads I have had banyan trees planted so that they can give shade to animals and men, and I have had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight //krosas//, I have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering-places made for the use of animals and men. But these are but minor achievements. Such things to make the people happy have been done by former kings. I have done these things for this purpose, that the people might practice the Dhamma. Pilar Edict Nb7 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Officers of the faith
In past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officers were appointed by me thirteen years after my coronation. Now they work among all religions for the establishment of Dhamma, for the promotion of Dhamma, and for the welfare and happiness of all who are devoted to Dhamma. They work among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Gandharas, the Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other peoples on the western borders. They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders, the poor, the aged and those devoted to Dhamma – for their welfare and happiness – so that they may be free from harassment. Rock Edict Nb5 (S. Dhammika)
[edit] Inscriptions
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Ashoka Edict Girnaar1.png
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Ashoka Edict Girnaar2.png
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Ashoka Edict Girnaar3.png
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Ashoka edict dhauli1.png
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Ashoka edict dhauli2.png
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Ashoka edict dhauli3.png
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Ashoka edict jaugada1.png
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Ashoka edict jaugada2.png
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Ashoka edict jaugada3.png
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Ashoka edict khalsi1.png
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Ashoka edict khalsi2.png
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Ashoka edict misc1.png
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Ashoka edict misc2.png
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Ashoka edict misc3.png
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Ashoka pillar allahabad.png
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Ashoka pillar delhi1.png
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Ashoka pillar delhi2.png
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Ashoka pillar delhi3.png
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Ashoka pillar delhi4.png
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Ashoka pillar lauriya-araraj1.png
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Ashoka pillar lauriya-araraj2.png
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Ashoka pillar lauriya-navandgarh1.png
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Ashoka pillar lauriya-navandgarh2.png
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Ashoka edict shahbaz-garhi1.png
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Ashoka edict shahbaz-garhi2.png
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[edit] Estampages of Girnar Edicts
An estampage is an impression of the inscription on a rock face. This can be obtained by pressing wet paper to the rock face.
Estampages of Asokan edicts were prepared by ASI for their publication in a revised Corpus.[4]
The following five images are estampages of the Girnar Rock Edicts. A comparison with Cunningham’s reproductions (see above) shows that his copies of the Girnar edicts are not faithful to the incised Brahmi characters. A note describing some of the differences can be seen here.[5] Two digital photographs of the right half of the rock can be seen in that note as well as their author's page on the web.[6]
*
GRE1-2.jpg
*
GRE3-5.jpg
*
GRE6-8.jpg
*
GRE9-12.jpg
*
GRE13-14.jpg
[edit] See also
* Edict
* Greco-Buddhism
* Kambojas
* Ashoka's Major Rock Edict
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Gandhari original of Edict No13 (Greek kings: Paragraph 9): Text
[edit] References
1. ^ Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35615-6
2. ^ Mauryans & Graeco-Bactrians
3. ^ a b c Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 8.
4. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum – Volume 1: Inscriptions of Asoka by E. Hultzsch, 1925
5. ^ http://jignashi.blogspot.com/
6. ^ http://www.ghumakkar.com/2010/01/05/junagadh-–-a-journey-through-ages/
* "The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering" by Ven. S. Dhammika (The Wheel Publication No. 386/387) ISBN 955-24-0104-6
* "Zen living" by Robert Linssen ISBN 0-8021-3136-0
[edit] External links
* The Edicts of King Ashoka (full text, electronic edition offered for free distribution)
* The Edicts of King Ashoka in Access to Insight
* Edicts in original Gandhari
* King Asoka and Buddhism. Historical and Literary studies
* Inscriptions of India – Complete listing of historical inscriptions from Indian temples and monuments
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Kalarippayatt
Kalarippayatt
Kalarippayatt is the ancient martial art of India, it is said to be the mother of all martial arts and dates back some thousands of years. Could it be true that the Buddhist monk, Bodhidarma studied this art and imparted these skills throughout South East Asia, then into China at the Soong Shan monastery? From further study, it is now clear that many traveling monks, merchants, and especially Ksatriyas (warrior class), were also responsible for imparting such knowledge, from its martial techniques in injury, medicine, and pressure point (marman) striking skills. One can easily see similarities between the arts such as silat, Chuan Fa (Gung Fu), not just in its techniques, but also in its training methods.
Traditional masters of Kalari attribute Parasurama who is an incarnation of the supreme Lord, and the creator of the land of Kerela, instituted 108 Kalaries all over the land. This legend on the origin of the institutions propagated by Keralolpathi, still lingers in the minds of the people. Some masters believe that the Kalari system originated out of the wrath of the lord Shiva while in his fury, to destroy Dakshayaga. Parasurama is surposed to have studied this art from him and and have handed it over to his 21 disciples in Kerela. Of the Kalarippayatt, the southern system offers the story that sage Agastya was the founder of the art.
Sometime later in the history of the Kalarippayatt, the famous Bhodidharma from Madras who was said to be the master of the art of Kalarippayatt traveled to Kerela. It is said that he had learnt the Northern as well as the Southern forms of Kalari. From there he went on to Indonesia, Malaysia then to southern China, and then to Soong Shan mountains to the Shaolin Temple, and it was there that he taught the martial art. He later became known as Da Mo, this was some 1500 hundred years ago.
Overall it is to be assumed the Kalarippayatt has emerged through a long process as the result of a synthesis of an indigenous physical culture with the martial systems, imparted through a Brahminical institution called Salais. The word Kalari derived from Sanskrit, the worlds oldest written language 5,000 years is also seen in repeatedly in early Tamil anthologies.
'The Structure'
The building of the Kalari, based on the measurement of the ground, inform us that the size of the structure ranges from twelve to sixty two feet, the most common among the above groups and the only type that exist at present in Kerala is the Nalpatheerati. All Kalaries except the Patinetteerati bare from a width of half its length.
There are two different types of Kalaries, the Kuzhikalari in the North and the Nilakalari in the south of Kerela. A Kuzhikalari is constructed by digging out the soil from the ground and forming a pit for an appropriate structure. The depth of the pit varied from region to region. The Nilakkalaries of Southern Kerela are made by constructing mud or stone walls around the appropriate area and roofing it with coconut leaves. In the case of Radha Krishnan Kalari it was three stone walls covering a sand pit which was about 32 feet to 42 feet in length.
Kalari Deities
There is a whole lot of metaphysical belief according to which, the structure of a Kalari symbolized the universe, Starting when one enters into the Kalari, the right foot enters first, then touching the ground of the kalari with the right hand to evoke the goodness of the earth. At Rada Krishanan Kalari, Hanuman the monkey god was at the center of worship, and a prayer are offered before training commences. The worship; touching the ground, deity obeiances and to the gurus feet is to be repeated every day. The bowing represents complete submission to the Karari Deities, Kalari master and it's rules.
Dress Code
The traditional dress used in the Kalari is known as Kachha and its wearing method is Kachha Kettal. Even though Kachha means only dress, it has a special connection. The Kachha is referred to the North ballads as a loin cloth with 64 Muzhams (one muzham is equal to 16 inches) It is to be wrapped in a particular method which give maximum tightness to the hip and support the navel region. The belief that the power is generated from the navel is the basis of the art of Kahhakettal. And this also is the same for the other martial art disciplines.
It is practice to apply gingerly oil (sesame oil) or medicated oil before training, this renders coolness and flexibility to the body and invigorates the veins and muscles. Usually students of Kalarippayatt undergo a course of uzhichal massage with special medicinal oil like Mukkoot or Arakuzhambu, which last for about a fortnight. There are also some restrictions regarding food and drink during the course. The massage is done with the hands for the young and the feet for the older. Such massage is considered to be an integral part of the Kalarei training which help the body to attain flexibility, nimbleness and suppleness.
Training
There are two systems of Kalarippayatt, the Northern and the Southern system. The Southern system heavily concentrates on the focus of striking the pressure points, known as marman. The Southern Kalarippayatt has strong emphasis on open hand skills, that cover marama strike locking techniques, kick and throws.
At the heart of the Southern system is the complex forms, there are 18 forms to study. The first is the salutation form called Surya Namaska which means Obedience to the Sun god Surya. Also some other starting Kalari forms vary the offering (namaste) to Agastya. Each form builds onto the next, starting with the left stationary form, where the body only pivots totally on the left leg, and cover the four directions. This is also a very interesting to note, because the left leg stationary forms are the predecessor of the Chinese kung fu forms known as the moi fa or plum blossom, a shape that is the same as the dots of the No. 5 on a dice.
There are two types of forms in the Southern system, non moving (Otta Chuvadu) as above and moving (Kootta Chuvadu). In the moving forms, all manner of shapes are taken into account, from square, triangle, circle, etc. Within the Southern Kalarippayatt, like its Northern counterpart are the animal postures within the forms. Though taught in a different manner, both practise the snake, cock, boar, fish and many more, each having a different purpose either in application of exercise. Locking skills in Kalarippayatt are called Verum Kai Prayogam or unarmed fighting techniques. Chumattadi is another name, and its the fourth stage of Kalari training. This is a unique method of offense and defense. In this technique various holds, grips and locks are combined with knuckle and elbow hits directed at the Marama or vital points of the opponents body. Locking techniques cover not only the applications, of which there are some 300 locks, but also an escape from the certain lock. By this method one must learn to evade, duck, grapple in precise positioning and timing. Through practice and understanding the bodies mechanics one can easily apply these locks that would disable an enemy completely. Usually, knowledge of this kind is not passed on indiscriminately to any one, but only those with a disciplined life who guarantees that the knowledge will not be misused.
Weapons
After achieving perfect body control through meippayatt, the Kalari student will be initiated into the training of weapon, starting with wooden weapons: shote and long stike, otta.
Kalarippayatt is the ancient martial art of India, it is said to be the mother of all martial arts and dates back some thousands of years. Could it be true that the Buddhist monk, Bodhidarma studied this art and imparted these skills throughout South East Asia, then into China at the Soong Shan monastery? From further study, it is now clear that many traveling monks, merchants, and especially Ksatriyas (warrior class), were also responsible for imparting such knowledge, from its martial techniques in injury, medicine, and pressure point (marman) striking skills. One can easily see similarities between the arts such as silat, Chuan Fa (Gung Fu), not just in its techniques, but also in its training methods.
Traditional masters of Kalari attribute Parasurama who is an incarnation of the supreme Lord, and the creator of the land of Kerela, instituted 108 Kalaries all over the land. This legend on the origin of the institutions propagated by Keralolpathi, still lingers in the minds of the people. Some masters believe that the Kalari system originated out of the wrath of the lord Shiva while in his fury, to destroy Dakshayaga. Parasurama is surposed to have studied this art from him and and have handed it over to his 21 disciples in Kerela. Of the Kalarippayatt, the southern system offers the story that sage Agastya was the founder of the art.
Sometime later in the history of the Kalarippayatt, the famous Bhodidharma from Madras who was said to be the master of the art of Kalarippayatt traveled to Kerela. It is said that he had learnt the Northern as well as the Southern forms of Kalari. From there he went on to Indonesia, Malaysia then to southern China, and then to Soong Shan mountains to the Shaolin Temple, and it was there that he taught the martial art. He later became known as Da Mo, this was some 1500 hundred years ago.
Overall it is to be assumed the Kalarippayatt has emerged through a long process as the result of a synthesis of an indigenous physical culture with the martial systems, imparted through a Brahminical institution called Salais. The word Kalari derived from Sanskrit, the worlds oldest written language 5,000 years is also seen in repeatedly in early Tamil anthologies.
'The Structure'
The building of the Kalari, based on the measurement of the ground, inform us that the size of the structure ranges from twelve to sixty two feet, the most common among the above groups and the only type that exist at present in Kerala is the Nalpatheerati. All Kalaries except the Patinetteerati bare from a width of half its length.
There are two different types of Kalaries, the Kuzhikalari in the North and the Nilakalari in the south of Kerela. A Kuzhikalari is constructed by digging out the soil from the ground and forming a pit for an appropriate structure. The depth of the pit varied from region to region. The Nilakkalaries of Southern Kerela are made by constructing mud or stone walls around the appropriate area and roofing it with coconut leaves. In the case of Radha Krishnan Kalari it was three stone walls covering a sand pit which was about 32 feet to 42 feet in length.
Kalari Deities
There is a whole lot of metaphysical belief according to which, the structure of a Kalari symbolized the universe, Starting when one enters into the Kalari, the right foot enters first, then touching the ground of the kalari with the right hand to evoke the goodness of the earth. At Rada Krishanan Kalari, Hanuman the monkey god was at the center of worship, and a prayer are offered before training commences. The worship; touching the ground, deity obeiances and to the gurus feet is to be repeated every day. The bowing represents complete submission to the Karari Deities, Kalari master and it's rules.
Dress Code
The traditional dress used in the Kalari is known as Kachha and its wearing method is Kachha Kettal. Even though Kachha means only dress, it has a special connection. The Kachha is referred to the North ballads as a loin cloth with 64 Muzhams (one muzham is equal to 16 inches) It is to be wrapped in a particular method which give maximum tightness to the hip and support the navel region. The belief that the power is generated from the navel is the basis of the art of Kahhakettal. And this also is the same for the other martial art disciplines.
It is practice to apply gingerly oil (sesame oil) or medicated oil before training, this renders coolness and flexibility to the body and invigorates the veins and muscles. Usually students of Kalarippayatt undergo a course of uzhichal massage with special medicinal oil like Mukkoot or Arakuzhambu, which last for about a fortnight. There are also some restrictions regarding food and drink during the course. The massage is done with the hands for the young and the feet for the older. Such massage is considered to be an integral part of the Kalarei training which help the body to attain flexibility, nimbleness and suppleness.
Training
There are two systems of Kalarippayatt, the Northern and the Southern system. The Southern system heavily concentrates on the focus of striking the pressure points, known as marman. The Southern Kalarippayatt has strong emphasis on open hand skills, that cover marama strike locking techniques, kick and throws.
At the heart of the Southern system is the complex forms, there are 18 forms to study. The first is the salutation form called Surya Namaska which means Obedience to the Sun god Surya. Also some other starting Kalari forms vary the offering (namaste) to Agastya. Each form builds onto the next, starting with the left stationary form, where the body only pivots totally on the left leg, and cover the four directions. This is also a very interesting to note, because the left leg stationary forms are the predecessor of the Chinese kung fu forms known as the moi fa or plum blossom, a shape that is the same as the dots of the No. 5 on a dice.
There are two types of forms in the Southern system, non moving (Otta Chuvadu) as above and moving (Kootta Chuvadu). In the moving forms, all manner of shapes are taken into account, from square, triangle, circle, etc. Within the Southern Kalarippayatt, like its Northern counterpart are the animal postures within the forms. Though taught in a different manner, both practise the snake, cock, boar, fish and many more, each having a different purpose either in application of exercise. Locking skills in Kalarippayatt are called Verum Kai Prayogam or unarmed fighting techniques. Chumattadi is another name, and its the fourth stage of Kalari training. This is a unique method of offense and defense. In this technique various holds, grips and locks are combined with knuckle and elbow hits directed at the Marama or vital points of the opponents body. Locking techniques cover not only the applications, of which there are some 300 locks, but also an escape from the certain lock. By this method one must learn to evade, duck, grapple in precise positioning and timing. Through practice and understanding the bodies mechanics one can easily apply these locks that would disable an enemy completely. Usually, knowledge of this kind is not passed on indiscriminately to any one, but only those with a disciplined life who guarantees that the knowledge will not be misused.
Weapons
After achieving perfect body control through meippayatt, the Kalari student will be initiated into the training of weapon, starting with wooden weapons: shote and long stike, otta.
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